{"id":2202,"date":"2026-08-29T16:21:26","date_gmt":"2026-08-29T16:21:26","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/?p=2202"},"modified":"2026-08-29T16:21:26","modified_gmt":"2026-08-29T16:21:26","slug":"tim-hieu-tan-chu-nghia-thuc-dung-my","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/tim-hieu-tan-chu-nghia-thuc-dung-my\/","title":{"rendered":"T\u00ecm Hi\u1ec3u T\u00e2n Ch\u1ee7 Ngh\u0129a Th\u1ef1c D\u1ee5ng M\u1ef9"},"content":{"rendered":"

T\u00f4i tin ch\u1eafc r\u1eb1ng d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb, kh\u00f4ng nh\u1eefng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb v\u1ec1 \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c, m\u00e0 c\u00f2n l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb v\u1ec1 nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c trong m\u1ecdi l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c.\u00a0 D\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u00f2i h\u1ecfi cho c\u00e1c tra v\u1ea5n th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m trong b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c n\u00e0o..<\/span><\/p>\n

(I hold that democracy to be a value, not just an ethical value, but a cognitive value in every area. Democracy is a requirement for experimental inquiry in any area.)<\/span><\/p>\n

Hilary Putnam\u00a0(The American Philosopher,\u00a0Giovanna Borradori, NXB The University of Chicago Press, 1994, tr. 64<\/span><\/p>\n

\"\"T\u1eeb l\u00fac ra \u0111\u1eddi (1907) \u0111\u1ebfn nay, ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng M\u1ef9 (CNTD) \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ed3ng h\u00e0nh v\u1edbi qu\u1ed1c gia tr\u1ebb trung n\u00e0y tr\u00ean m\u1ed9t th\u1ebf k\u1ef7. Ba tri\u1ebft gia ti\u00ean phong ch\u00ednh c\u1ee7a phong tr\u00e0o g\u1ed3m Charles Sanders Peirse (1839 -1914), Williams James (1842 \u2013 1910) v\u00e0 John Dewey (1859 \u2013 1952) \u0111\u00e3 lu\u1eadn b\u00e0n v\u1ec1 h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft c\u00e1c ph\u1ea1m tr\u00f9 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc: \u00fd ngh\u0129a, ch\u00e2n l\u00fd, gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb, tra v\u1ea5n, tri th\u1ee9c , h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng vv. N\u00f3i chung, \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi c\u00e1c tri\u1ebft gia th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng n\u00e0y, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 \u201cch\u00e2n l\u00fd\u201d tuy\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ed1i v\u00e0 v\u0129nh c\u1eedu m\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u1ec3 h\u01b0\u1edbng d\u1eabn c\u00e1ch h\u00e0nh x\u1eed c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. H\u1ecd cho r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft v\u00e0 nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft c\u00f3 \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n (contingent understandings), c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111i\u1ec1u ch\u1ec9nh hay thay \u0111\u1ed5i khi c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng th\u00f4ng tin m\u1edbi ho\u1eb7c tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m m\u1edbi; v\u00e0 h\u1ecd c\u0169ng cho r\u1eb1ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 n\u01a1i n\u00e0o tuy\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ed1i c\u1ee5 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ec3 t\u1ef1a v\u00e0o, hay \u0111\u1ec3 l\u00e0m kim ch\u1ec9 nam h\u01b0\u1edbng d\u1eabn. H\u1ecd mu\u1ed1n v\u1eadn d\u1ee5ng nh\u1eefng ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p khoa h\u1ecdc nh\u1eb1m nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, h\u1ea7u \u0111\u01b0a tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 h\u1eefu d\u1ee5ng \u0111\u00edch th\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a n\u00f3, ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 gi\u00fap gi\u1ea3i quy\u1ebft \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eefng v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf li\u00ean quan \u0111\u1ebfn cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng h\u1eb1ng ng\u00e0y c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi. Nguy\u00ean l\u00fd c\u0103n b\u1ea3n n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e1p \u1ee9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tinh th\u1ea7n canh t\u00e2n c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Thanh gi\u00e1o (Puritans) c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 \u201ctinh th\u1ea7n qu\u1ed1c gia\u201d c\u1ee7a mi\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ea5t m\u1edbi mu\u1ed1n tho\u00e1t kh\u1ecfi \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng ch\u00e2u \u00c2u, trong \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 \u00fd chi c\u1ee7a gi\u1edbi tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c mong mu\u1ed1n \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec m\u1edbi m\u1ebb, \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp v\u1ec1 h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt v\u0103n ch\u01b0\u01a1ng, v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i h\u00f3a k\u1ef9 ngh\u1ec7 \u0111\u1ec3 b\u1eaft k\u1ecbp \u0111\u00e0 ti\u1ebfn nhanh c\u1ee7a qu\u1ed1c gia t\u00e2n l\u1eadp. Nh\u1edd \u0111\u00f3 m\u00e0 CNTD \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u00f3n ti\u1ebfp n\u1ed3ng h\u1eadu v\u00e0 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n trong h\u01a1n m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi gian kh\u00e1 d\u00e0\u1ecb. Sau Th\u1ebf Chi\u1ebfn Th\u1ee9 Hai, \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a CNTD l\u1ea7n l\u1ea7n b\u1ecb m\u1edd nh\u1ea1t \u0111i t\u1ea1i Hoa K\u1ef3. D\u01b0\u1edbi \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 nguy\u00ean do ch\u00ednh.<\/p>\n

S\u1ef1 Suy Tho\u00e1i C\u1ee7a Ch\u1ee7 Ngh\u0129a Th\u1ef1c D\u1ee5ng C\u1ed5 \u0110i\u1ec3n<\/span><\/h1>\n

Tr\u01b0\u1edbc h\u1ebft, ngay t\u1eeb khi m\u1edbi ra \u0111\u1eddi, CNTD \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gi\u1edbi thi\u1ec7u m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng v\u00e0 r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng, th\u1eadm ch\u00ed \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u1ec1 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 ph\u1ea1m tr\u00f9 c\u00f2n m\u00e2u thu\u1ea9n nhau. Ch\u1ec9 v\u00e0i n\u0103m sau khi James tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 Peirse l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 khai s\u00e1ng CNTD v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 b\u00e0i di\u1ec5n thuy\u1ebft, th\u00ec Addison Webster Moore, m\u1ed9t gi\u00e1o s\u01b0 c\u1ee7a University of Chicago \u0111\u00e3 cho in quy\u1ec3n Pragmatism and Its Critics (NXB The University of Chicago Press, 1910) n\u00eau l\u00ean nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec3m kh\u00f4ng r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng h\u1ea1n ch\u1ebf c\u1ee7a CNTD. Ch\u1eb3ng h\u1ea1n, Moore cho r\u1eb1ng CNTD b\u1ecb ph\u1ea3n \u0111\u1ed1i v\u00ec (1) s\u1ef1 m\u01a1 h\u1ed3 kh\u00f3 hi\u1ec3u khi d\u00f9ng t\u1eeb \u201cm\u1ee5c ti\u00eau th\u1ef1c ti\u1ec5n\u201d (\u201cpractical purpose\u201d); (2) t\u00ednh ch\u1ee7 quan c\u1ea7n thi\u1ebft v\u00e0 t\u00ednh t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed1i c\u1ee7a t\u00ecnh th\u1ebf (the necessary subjectivity and relativity of the position); vi\u1ec7c thi\u1ebfu nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc nh\u1edd \u0111\u00f3 tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c li\u00ean k\u1ebft l\u1ea1i (the lack of any principle by means of which experience can be united) vv. Nh\u01b0 James t\u1eebng n\u00f3i \u201cCh\u00e2n l\u00fd \u2026 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn nh\u1edd h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng t\u00edn d\u1ee5ng. Nh\u1eefng t\u01b0 duy v\u00e0 ni\u1ec1m tin c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta v\u01b0\u1ee3t qua \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u1edbi \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n l\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng g\u1eb7p ph\u1ea3i th\u1eed th\u00e1ch, gi\u1ed1ng y nh\u01b0 nh\u1eefng t\u1edd gi\u1ea5y b\u1ea1c v\u01b0\u1ee3t qua \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c khi kh\u00f4ng ai t\u1eeb ch\u1ed1i ch\u00fang.\u201d (Pragmatism and Other Things, NXB: Penguin Classics, 2000, tr. 91).V\u1eady CNTD c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 n\u00e0o gi\u1eef m\u00e3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u00e0o quang nh\u01b0 James \u0111\u00e3 t\u1eebng h\u00e3nh di\u1ec7n vi\u1ebft cho em m\u00ecnh hay kh\u00f4ng? C\u00e2u tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi s\u1ebd l\u00e0 ph\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ecbnh.<\/p>\n

Nh\u01b0 ch\u00fang ta \u0111\u00e3 bi\u1ebft, trong 3 nh\u00e0 ti\u1ec1n phong tr\u00ean c\u1ee7a CNTD, Dewey l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u1ed5i b\u1eadt nh\u1ea5t, kh\u00f4ng nh\u1eefng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 gi\u00e1o, m\u1ed9t tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c, m\u00e0 c\u00f2n l\u00e0 \u201cm\u1ed9t ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb gia ch\u00e2n ch\u00ednh\u201d (a stateman \u2014 \u0111\u1ec3 ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t v\u1edbi \u201cm\u1ed9t \u201cch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb gia chuy\u00ean nghi\u1ec7p\u201d, a politician) m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 \u00f4ng kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1ea7u c\u1eed hay b\u1ed5 nhi\u1ec7m v\u00e0o m\u1ed9t ch\u1ee9c v\u1ee5 c\u00f4ng quy\u1ec1n n\u00e0o. Nh\u1edd hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft r\u1ed9ng r\u00e3i, uy t\u00edn cao, th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111i \u0111\u00e2y \u0111i \u0111\u00f3, s\u1ed1ng l\u00e2u m\u00e0 v\u1eabn s\u00e1ng su\u1ed1t, \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1eddi g\u1ecdi c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 t\u01b0 nguy\u1ec7n tham gia ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng r\u1ea5t t\u00edch c\u1ef1c trong nhi\u1ec1u l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c kh\u00e1c nhau. Theo thi\u1ec3n \u00fd, ch\u00ednh trong l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb, t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 khi\u1ebfn cho CNTD b\u1ecb \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng b\u1ea5t l\u1ee3i kh\u00f4ng \u00edt. Th\u1ef1c v\u1eady, CNTD h\u1ee9a h\u1eb9n s\u1ebd mang l\u1ea1i h\u00f2a b\u00ecnh cho nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i, nh\u01b0ng \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng ng\u0103n c\u1ea3n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Hoa K\u1ef3 tham chi\u1ebfn Th\u1ebf Chi\u1ebfn Th\u1ee9 Nh\u1ea5t c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 Th\u1ebf Chi\u1ebfn Th\u1ee9 Hai; \u0111\u00e3 v\u1eady m\u00e0 c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng l\u1ea1i c\u00f2n qu\u1ea3ng b\u00e1 tinh th\u1ea7n y\u00eau n\u01b0\u1edbc v\u00e0 khuy\u1ebfn kh\u00edch m\u1ecdi c\u00f4ng d\u00e2n tham gia t\u00edch c\u1ef1c v\u00e0o hai cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn n\u00e0y. Th\u00eam v\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3, trong h\u01a1n m\u01b0\u01a1i n\u0103m \u0111\u1ea7u th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 20 c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n nhanh ch\u00f3ng c\u1ee7a nhi\u1ec1u th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p tr\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 \u0111\u00f2i h\u1ecfi nh\u1eefng c\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i, thay n\u1ec1n kinh t\u1ebf c\u1ea1nh tranh (competitive economy) b\u1eb1ng kinh t\u1ebf x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i (social economy). T\u1ea1i Hoa K\u1ef3, phong tr\u00e0o c\u1ea5p ti\u1ebfn (progressive movement) \u0111\u00f2i h\u1ecfi m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 c\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch t\u1eadn g\u1ed1c r\u1ec5, y\u00eau c\u1ea7u m\u1ed9t ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n c\u00f3 \u00fd th\u1ee9c x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i (socially concious governement), ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n ph\u1ea3i b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 \u201ct\u1ef1 do\u201d, hi\u1ec3u theo \u00fd ngh\u0129a m\u1edbi. Dewey g\u1ecdi t\u1ef1 do m\u1edbi n\u00e0y l\u00e0 \u201cquy\u1ec1n t\u1ef1 do h\u1eefu hi\u1ec7u\u201d (effective freedom), ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n kh\u00f4ng nh\u1eefng kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ti\u00eau c\u1ef1c trong vi\u1ec7c b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 quy\u1ec1n t\u1ef1 do c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi nh\u01b0 tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e2y, m\u00e0 c\u00f2n c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i t\u00edch c\u1ef1c, ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0m nh\u1eefng th\u1ee9 g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t, ch\u1eb3ng h\u1ea1n n\u00ean chia x\u1ebb quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c c\u00e1ch bi\u1ec7t l\u1edbn lao (immense inequality of power) \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u1eddi \u1edf th\u1eddi Hoa K\u1ef3; hay n\u00ean h\u1ee3p t\u00e1c d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 trong vi\u1ec7c quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh nh\u1eefng l\u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u00e0 m\u1ee5c ti\u00eau, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 t\u1ea1o ra c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh ch\u1ebf c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p v\u00e0 x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i c\u1ee7a qu\u1ed1c gia, nh\u01b0 l\u1eddi \u0111\u1ec1 ngh\u1ecb c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ng\u01b0\u1ee1ng m\u1ed9 \u00f4ng. Trong cu\u1ed9c tranh c\u1eed T\u1ed5ng Th\u1ed1ng n\u0103m 1924, Dewey c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 t\u00edch c\u1ef1c v\u1eadn \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u00e0 \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9 \u1ee9ng c\u1eed vi\u00ean c\u1ee7a Progressive Party, m\u1ed9t ch\u00ednh \u0111\u1ea3ng t\u00e2n l\u1eadp ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u00e1nh thu\u1ebf cao v\u00e0o c\u1ee7a c\u1ea3i, b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 t\u00e0i nguy\u00ean thi\u00ean nhi\u00ean, c\u00f4ng h\u1eefu h\u00f3a ng\u00e0nh h\u1ecfa xa, mi\u1ec5n thu\u1ebf n\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p, ch\u1ea5m d\u1ee9t lao \u0111\u1ed9ng tr\u1ebb con vv. m\u00e0 \u00f4ng g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 \u201cnh\u1eefng thay \u0111\u1ed5i t\u00edch c\u1ef1c v\u00e0 x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng l\u1ea1i m\u1ed9t tr\u1eadt t\u1ef1 kinh t\u1ebf\u201d, nh\u01b0ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0y ch\u1ec9 th\u1eafng phi\u1ebfu \u1edf ti\u1ec3u bang sinh tr\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh m\u00e0 th\u00f4\u1ecb (Give Me Liberty! An America History, 2nd ed., TG Eric Foner, NXB W.W. Norton, 2009, tr. 662, 691, 734).<\/p>\n

Dewey, theo Alan Ryan cho bi\u1ebft, \u0111\u00e3 l\u00ean ti\u1ebfng ch\u1ec9 tr\u00edch nh\u1eefng bi\u1ec7n ph\u00e1p m\u00e0 T\u1ed5ng Th\u1ed1ng Roosevelt d\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ed1i ph\u00f3 v\u1edbi cu\u1ed9c kh\u1ee7ng ho\u1ea3ng kinh t\u1ebf th\u1eadp ni\u00ean 1930 d\u01b0\u1edbi ng\u1ecdn c\u1edd ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a t\u1ef1 do (liberalism). Nh\u01b0 ch\u00fang ta \u0111\u00e3 bi\u1ebft, T\u1ed5ng Th\u1ed1ng Roosevelt \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a ra kh\u00e1 nhi\u1ec1u bi\u1ec7n ph\u00e1p can thi\u1ec7p r\u1ea5t m\u1ea1nh m\u1ebd v\u00e0 t\u00e1o b\u1ea1o v\u00e0o c\u00e1c l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c kinh t\u1ebf (ch\u1eb3ng h\u1ea1n nhi\u1ec1u lu\u1eadt l\u1ec7, qui \u0111\u1ecbnh nh\u1eb1m h\u1ea1n ch\u1ebf quy\u1ec1n t\u1ef1 do kinh doanh, nghi\u1ec7p \u0111o\u00e0n), nhi\u1ec1u bi\u1ec7n ph\u00e1p h\u00e0nh ch\u00e1nh (ch\u1eb3ng h\u1ea1n c\u01a1 quan m\u1edbi m\u1ecdc l\u00ean nh\u01b0 n\u1ea5m, l\u1eafm khi quy\u1ec1n h\u1ea1n tr\u00f9ng l\u1eafp), c\u1ea3i t\u1ed5 t\u01b0 ph\u00e1p (ch\u1eb3ng h\u1ea1n trong nhi\u1ec7m k\u1ef3 \u0111\u1ea7u \u0111\u00e3 l\u00ean ti\u1ebfng \u0111e d\u1ecda, r\u1ed3i sang \u0111\u1ea7u nhi\u1ec7m k\u1ef3 th\u1ee9 hai \u0111\u00e3 th\u1eadt s\u1ef1 \u0111\u01b0a ra d\u1ef1 lu\u1eadt nh\u1eb1m t\u0103ng th\u00eam s\u1ed1 th\u1ea9m ph\u00e1n t\u1ea1i T\u1ed1i Cao Ph\u00e1p Vi\u1ec7n Hoa K\u1ef3, nh\u01b0ng b\u1ecb b\u00e1c). Tuy \u00f4ng c\u00f2n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00edn nhi\u1ec7m th\u00eam hai nhi\u1ec7m k\u1ef3 n\u1eefa \u2014 \u00f4ng m\u1ea5t v\u00e0i th\u00e1ng sau v\u00e0o \u0111\u1ea7u nhi\u1ec7m k\u1ef3 th\u1ee9 t\u01b0\u2014nh\u01b0ng d\u01b0 lu\u1eadn trong n\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ecf ra lo ng\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi quy\u1ec1n t\u1ef1 do kinh doanh, v\u1edbi gu\u1ed3ng m\u00e1y ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n c\u1ed3ng k\u1ec1nh v\u00e0 nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed1i n\u1ec1n d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng. Trong khi \u0111\u1ea3ng C\u1ed9ng H\u00f2a ch\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1i v\u00e0 ngay c\u1ea3 nhi\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ea3ng vi\u00ean \u201cb\u1ea3o th\u1ee7\u201d c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ea3ng D\u00e2n Ch\u1ee7 c\u0169ng ph\u1ea3i e d\u00e8, th\u00ec Dewey cho l\u00e0 t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 bi\u1ec7n ph\u00e1p n\u00e0y c\u00f2n qu\u00e1 thi\u1ebfu cho m\u1ed9t ngh\u1ecb tr\u00ecnh c\u1ea3i t\u1ed5 d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7. Dewey c\u00f2n \u0111\u1ee9ng ra th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp ra t\u1ed5 ch\u1ee9c c\u00f3 t\u00ean l\u00e0 The League for Independent Political Action (LIPA) v\u00e0o th\u00e1ng 12\/1928, ch\u1ec9 m\u01b0\u1eddi th\u00e1ng tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi cu\u1ed9c \u0110\u1ea1i Kh\u1ee7ng Ho\u1ea3ng Kinh T\u1ebf x\u1ea3y ra, v\u1edbi \u00fd \u0111\u1ecbnh ti\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ed9t ch\u00ednh \u0111\u1ea3ng th\u1ee9 ba, v\u00ec theo \u00f4ng c\u1ea3 2 \u0111\u1ea3ng C\u1ed9ng H\u00f2a v\u00e0 D\u00e2n Ch\u1ee7 \u0103n n\u00ean l\u00e0m ra v\u00e0 tr\u1edf n\u00ean gi\u00e0u c\u00f3 \u0111\u1ec1u nh\u1edd v\u00e0o gi\u1edbi s\u1ea3n xu\u1ea5t v\u1edbi c\u00e1i gi\u00e1 m\u00e0 gi\u1edbi ti\u00eau th\u1ee5 v\u00e0 lao \u0111\u1ed9ng ph\u1ea3i tr\u1ea3. Tuy \u00f4ng kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ea3ng x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i hay c\u1ed9ng s\u1ea3n (Social or Communist Party) v\u00ec cho r\u1eb1ng ch\u00fang do Moscow \u0111i\u1ec1u khi\u1ec3n, nh\u01b0ng theo \u00f4ng, Hoa K\u1ef3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t qu\u1ed1c gia m\u00e0 giai c\u1ea5p trung l\u01b0u l\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu cho n\u00ean phong tr\u00e0o c\u1ea3i t\u1ed5 ph\u1ea3i d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o giai c\u1ea5p trung l\u01b0u c\u1ef1c \u0111oan n\u00e0y (the radical middle class) v\u00e0 ph\u1ea3i th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n ngay. (John Dewey and the High Tide of American Liberalism, NXB W.W. Norton. 1995, tr. 284 \u2013 303).
\nB\u00ean c\u1ea1nh nh\u1eefng b\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ed3ng ch\u00ednh ki\u1ebfn n\u00f3i tr\u00ean, theo John P. Diggins, CNTD c\u00f2n b\u1ecb ph\u00ea ph\u00e1n l\u00e0 \u201cthi\u1ebfu \u2018m\u1ed9t c\u1ea3m nh\u1eadn c\u00f3 k\u1ecbch t\u00ednh v\u1ec1 cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng\u2019, \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 th\u1ea5p qu\u00e1 kh\u1ee9 l\u00e0 c\u1ea3n tr\u1edf cho s\u1ef1 ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9, \u0111\u00f2i h\u1ecfi c\u00e1c t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng gia ph\u1ea3i \u0111i\u1ec1u ch\u1ec9nh v\u1edbi c\u00e1c t\u00ecnh hu\u1ed1ng, h\u01a1n l\u00e0 l\u00e0m cho c\u00e1c t\u00ecnh hu\u1ed1ng ph\u00f9 h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi nhu c\u1ea7u v\u00e0 \u01b0\u1edbc mu\u1ed1n c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, v\u00e0 qua vi\u1ec7c khuy\u00ean c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c n\u00ean h\u1ecdc h\u1ecfi c\u00e1c b\u00ed m\u1eadt t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m cho quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed1i t\u01b0\u1ee3ng duy nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a tri th\u1ee9c\u201d. Lewis Mumford, trong ban bi\u00ean t\u1eadp c\u1ee7a t\u1edd New Republic, c\u01a1 quan ng\u00f4n lu\u1eadn c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ea3ng D\u00e2n Ch\u1ee7, c\u00f2n \u201cmu\u1ed1n Hoa K\u1ef3 t\u1eeb b\u1ecf ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng, v\u00e0 xem l\u1ea1i di s\u1ea3n tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a ri\u00eang m\u00ecnh\u201d (The Promise of Pragmatism, NXB The University of Chicago Press, tr. 366 \u2013 368). C\u0169ng theo Diggins, m\u1ed9t bi\u1ebfn c\u1ed1 kh\u00e1 quan tr\u1ecdng kh\u00e1c x\u1ea3y ra trong l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c h\u00e0n l\u00e2m \u0111\u00e3 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng kh\u00f4ng \u00edt \u0111\u1ebfn CNTD. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1936, Robert Hutchins, Vi\u1ec7n Tr\u01b0\u1edfng (President) tr\u1ebb trung v\u00e0 n\u0103ng \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a University of Chicago \u0111\u00e3 k\u00eau g\u1ecdi s\u1eeda \u0111\u1ed5i h\u1ecdc tr\u00ecnh ban Ban C\u1eed Nh\u00e2n b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng nh\u1eefng quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch kinh \u0111i\u1ec3n n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng T\u00e2y Ph\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u00e0 d\u1ea1y theo tinh th\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ed1i tho\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a Socrate, v\u00e0 nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 s\u1ebd l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 tr\u1edf l\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc m\u00e0 CNTD \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e2u nay c\u00f4ng k\u00edch. L\u00e0 m\u1ed9t tri\u1ebft gia ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb, Dewey tuy tin t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u00e0o c\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng, th\u1ea5y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 th\u0103ng hoa c\u1ee7a Hoa K\u1ef3, m\u1ed9t qu\u1ed1c gia c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt hi\u1ec3n nhi\u00ean v\u00e0 c\u00e1c quy\u1ec1n t\u1ef1 do c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n t\u01b0 nhi\u00ean d\u01b0\u1edbi th\u1eddi t\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng Jefferson, nh\u01b0ng \u00f4ng kh\u00f4ng tin r\u1eb1ng Hoa K\u1ef3 c\u1ea7n m\u1ed9t n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng tri\u1ebft l\u00fd chung (a common philosophical foundation). \u00d4ng \u0111\u00e1p \u1ee9ng l\u1ea1i b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch vi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng khi ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0y ch\u1ecdn Socrate v\u00e0 Saint Thomas nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 truy\u1ec1n b\u00e1 c\u00f3 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng ch\u00e2n l\u00fd h\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ea7u (as competent promulgators of first truths), th\u00ec c\u0169ng c\u00f3 k\u1ebb kh\u00e1c l\u1ea1i th\u00edch Hegel, Marx hay Mussolini, v\u00e0 cho r\u1eb1ng Vi\u1ec7n Tr\u01b0\u1edfng Hutchins \u0111\u00e3 x\u00e2m ph\u1ea1m v\u00e0o v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1: ai l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 quy\u1ec1n quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng n\u00e0o t\u1ea1o l\u1eadp ra h\u1ec7 c\u1ea5p th\u1ee9 b\u1eadc \u0111\u00f3 (s\u0111d., tr. 392).<\/p>\n

T\u1eeb nh\u1eefng bi\u1ebfn c\u1ed1 l\u1edbn nh\u1ecf k\u1ec3 tr\u00ean, ng\u01b0\u1eddi M\u1ef9 b\u1edbt l\u1ea7n h\u00e0o h\u1ee9ng v\u1edbi CNTD. Nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng khi b\u00e0y t\u1ecf nh\u1eefng quan t\u00e2m c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng di\u1ec7n ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a t\u1ef1 do v\u1ec1 ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb (political liberalism); nh\u01b0ng nh\u01b0 ch\u00fang ta th\u1eeba bi\u1ebft, khi tham gia v\u00e0o c\u00e1c tranh c\u00e3i ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb, th\u00ec uy t\u00edn tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3 c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd c\u0169ng thay \u0111\u1ed5i v\u00e0 tri\u1ebft thuy\u1ebft m\u00e0 h\u1ecd \u0111ang theo c\u0169ng ch\u1ecbu \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 t\u00edch c\u1ef1c hay ti\u00eau c\u1ef1c t\u00f9y theo k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 mang l\u1ea1i qua c\u00e1c cu\u1ed9c tranh c\u00e3i \u0111\u00f3. Ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n Roosevelt, trong \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng \u00edt nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo CNTD, \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a ra nhi\u1ec1u bi\u1ec7n ph\u00e1p ch\u1ed1ng kh\u1ee7ng ho\u1ea3ng kinh t\u1ebf tuy mang l\u1ea1i m\u1ed9t \u00edt hi\u1ec7u qu\u1ea3 ban \u0111\u1ea7u, nh\u01b0ng \u0111\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi cho th\u1ea5y qu\u00e1 nhi\u1ec1u d\u1ea5u hi\u1ec7u \u0111e d\u1ecda n\u1ec1n kinh t\u1ebf t\u01b0 b\u1ea3n v\u00e0 th\u1ec3 ch\u1ebf ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 Hoa K\u1ef3. N\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng x\u1ea3y ra chi\u1ebfn tranh \u0111\u01b0a \u0111\u1ebfn to\u00e0n d\u1ee5ng nh\u00e2n c\u00f4ng v\u00e0 gu\u1ed3ng m\u00e1y kinh t\u1ebf, th\u00ec li\u1ec7u nh\u1eefng bi\u1ec7n ph\u00e1p can thi\u1ec7p m\u00e0 th\u1ee7a \u0111\u00f3 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta xem l\u00e0 r\u1ea5t t\u1ea3 khuynh li\u1ec7u c\u00f3 \u0111em hi\u1ec7u qu\u1ea3 l\u00e2u d\u00e0i kh\u00f4ng. L\u00fac \u0111\u00f3, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch c\u00f3 h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng v\u00e0 r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi \u0111\u1ee7 lo\u1ea1i bi\u1ec7n ph\u00e1p t\u1eeb ph\u00eda ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n. Thi\u1ebft t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ea7n l\u01b0u \u00fd l\u00e0 l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft kinh t\u1ebf John M. Keynes m\u1edbi ra \u0111\u1eddi (1936), ch\u01b0a \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111em ra \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng tr\u00ean n\u01b0\u1edbc n\u00e0o c\u1ea3, cho n\u00ean nh\u1eefng bi\u1ec7n ph\u00e1p can thi\u1ec7p c\u00f3 t\u00ednh c\u00e1ch manh m\u00fang c\u1ee7a ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n Roosevelt \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem l\u00e0 thi\u1ebfu c\u0103n b\u1ea3n l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft.<\/p>\n

Theo Morris Dickstein, ph\u1ea3n \u1ee9ng ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a c\u1ea5p ti\u1ebfn (progressivism) sau 1920 bi\u1ebfn th\u00e0nh ph\u1ea3n \u1ee9ng ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i CNTD t\u1eeb nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ea3o th\u1ee7 v\u1ed1n xem Hoa K\u1ef3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t qu\u1ed1c gia ngo\u1ea1i l\u1ec7 v\u00e0 th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng. Sau Th\u1ebf Chi\u1ebfn Hai, ph\u1ea3n \u1ee9ng ch\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1i l\u1ea1i n\u00e0y l\u1ea1i c\u00e0ng th\u00eam r\u00f5 n\u00e9t h\u01a1n. Th\u00eam v\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3, nhi\u1ec1u h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft m\u1edbi m\u1ebb ra \u0111\u1eddi t\u1eeb ch\u00e2u \u00c2u nh\u01b0 thuy\u1ebft hi\u1ec7n sinh, thuy\u1ebft th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc v\u1ec1 kh\u1ee7ng ho\u1ea3ng (crisis theology), ph\u00e2n t\u00edch t\u00e2m l\u00fd, h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i (modernism) t\u1ecf ra h\u1ea5p d\u1eabn h\u01a1n \u0111\u00e3 l\u00f4i cu\u1ed1n kh\u00f4ng \u00edt gi\u1edbi tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c M\u1ef9. M\u1eb7t kh\u00e1c n\u1ed7i lo s\u1ee3 s\u1ef1 b\u00e0nh tr\u01b0\u1edbng v\u00e0 \u0111e d\u1ecda c\u1ee7a Li\u00ean X\u00f4 \u0111\u00e3 khi\u1ebfn qu\u1ea7n ch\u00fang M\u1ef9 h\u0103ng h\u00e1i t\u00ecm hi\u1ec3u ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a c\u1ed9ng s\u1ea3n\/x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i, \u0111\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi chi\u1ebfn tranh l\u1ea1nh b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u b\u1ed5 v\u00e2y th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi, khi\u1ebfn qu\u1ea7n ch\u00fang M\u1ef9 quan t\u00e2m \u0111i t\u00ecm c\u1ed9i ngu\u1ed3n c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 s\u1ee3 h\u00e3i \u0111\u00f3. M\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 di s\u1ea3n tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c nh\u01b0 CNTD, v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 \u201c-ism\u201d kh\u00e1c nh\u01b0 \u0111\u1ecbnh ch\u1ebf h\u1ecdc (institutionism), th\u00e1i \u0111\u1ed9 h\u1ecdc (behaviorism), ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a duy l\u00fd th\u1ef1c ti\u1ec3n v\u1ec1 lu\u1eadt ph\u00e1p (legal realism), ch\u1ee7 thuy\u1ebft quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh v\u1ec1 kinh t\u1ebf (economics determinism) m\u00e0 c\u00e1c tr\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc M\u1ef9 h\u00e3nh di\u1ec7n gi\u1ea3ng d\u1ea1y l\u00e2u nay b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u b\u1ecb l\u1ea5n l\u01b0\u1edbt. M\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 quan \u0111i\u1ec3m m\u00e0 Dewey \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem nh\u01b0 \u201cvua\u201d, nay \u0111\u00e3 ph\u1ea3i nh\u01b0\u1eddng ch\u1ed7 cho Kierkegaard, m\u1ed9t tri\u1ebft gia hi\u1ec7n sinh. (The Revival of Pragmatism: New Essays on Social Thought, Law, and Culture. NXB Duke University Press 1999, tr. 9)<\/p>\n

Trong nhi\u1ec1u n\u0103m k\u1ebf ti\u1ebfp, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t t\u1eeb sau Th\u1ebf Chi\u1ebfn Hai, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng di\u1ec7n ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb, hai \u0111\u1ea3ng D\u00e2n Ch\u1ee7 v\u00e0 C\u1ed9ng H\u00f2a thay phi\u00ean nhau n\u1eafm quy\u1ec1n \u2014 \u1edf c\u00e1c c\u1ea5p li\u00ean bang, ti\u1ec3u bang v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ecba ph\u01b0\u01a1ng \u2014 nh\u01b0ng ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a t\u1ef1 do (liberalism) v\u1eabn kh\u00f4ng ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n n\u1ed7i nh\u01b0 mong \u01b0\u1edbc c\u1ee7a nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi, nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi khuynh t\u1ea3, th\u1eadm ch\u00ed \u0111\u00f4i l\u00fac ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta kh\u00f4ng g\u1ecdi \u0111\u00fang t\u00ean c\u1ee7a n\u00f3, m\u00e0 l\u1ea1i tr\u00e1nh n\u00e9 g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a c\u1ea5p ti\u1ebfn\/ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9 (progressivism), nh\u01b0 ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 th\u1ea5y \u1edf t\u1ef1a \u0111\u1ec1 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 b\u00eca s\u00e1ch c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 b\u00ean trong hay b\u00e0i nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u tr\u00ean b\u00e1o ch\u00ed do c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea3ng vi\u00ean \u0111\u1ea3ng D\u00e2n Ch\u1ee7 vi\u1ebft. \u0110\u1ebfn khi Russell Kirk cho ra \u0111\u1eddi quy\u1ec3n The Conservative Mind (1953), trong \u0111\u00f3 thu th\u1eadp nh\u1eefng di\u1ec5n ng\u00f4n ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb, truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng v\u00e0 v\u0103n th\u01a1 l\u1ea7n l\u1ea7n g\u00e2y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ni\u1ec1m tin c\u0103n b\u1ea3n cho nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ea3o th\u1ee7, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 s\u1ef1 ra \u0111\u1eddi c\u1ee7a t\u1edd b\u00e1o National Review l\u00e0m ch\u1ed7 d\u1ef1a cho \u0111\u1ea3ng vi\u00ean C\u1ed9ng H\u00f2a, t\u1ea1o th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t phong tr\u00e0o thu h\u00fat m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ea1i b\u1ed9 ph\u1eadn ng\u01b0\u1eddi M\u1ef9, th\u00ec \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a t\u1ef1 do (liberalism) b\u1ecb suy gi\u1ea3m r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u, k\u00e9o xu\u1ed1ng theo m\u1ee9c h\u1ea5p d\u1eabn c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft thuy\u1ebft th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng c\u1ee7a ba nh\u00e0 th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng ti\u1ec1n phong n\u00f3i tr\u00ean\u2013 th\u01b0\u1eddng g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng c\u0169, c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n hay truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng (old, classic or traditional pragmatism).<\/p>\n

T\u00e2n Ch\u1ee7 Ngh\u0129a Th\u1ef1c D\u1ee5ng<\/span><\/h1>\n

Ng\u00e0y nay c\u00e1c h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 Hoa K\u1ef3 v\u00e0 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi \u0111\u1ec1u c\u00f4ng nh\u1eadn Richard Rorty l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 c\u00f4ng l\u1edbn nh\u1ea5t trong vi\u1ec7c t\u00e1i sinh ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng, v\u00e0 Hilary Putnam l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p kh\u00f4ng \u00edt v\u00e0o vi\u1ec7c ho\u00e0n thi\u1ec7n v\u00e0 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n n\u00f3. CNTD \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00e1i sinh n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi b\u1eb1ng nhi\u1ec1u t\u00ean kh\u00e1c nhau: CNTD t\u00e2n ti\u1ebfn (modern pragmatism), CNTD hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i (contemporary pragmatism), CNTD m\u1edbi (neo\/new pragmatism). Trong b\u00e0i n\u00e0y, ng\u01b0\u1eddi vi\u1ebft g\u1ecdi \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 t\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng (T\u00e2n CNTD) \u0111\u1ec3 d\u1ecbch c\u00e1i t\u00ean New Pragmatism. N\u00f3i m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch t\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t, Rorty v\u00e0 Putnam \u0111\u1ebfn t\u1eeb nh\u1eefng l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u kh\u00e1c nhau, t\u00ednh t\u00ecnh c\u0169ng kh\u00e1c nhau. Tuy h\u1ecd chia x\u1ebb m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 ti\u1ec1n phong c\u1ee7a CNTD c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n, nh\u01b0ng c\u00e1ch nh\u00ecn c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd kh\u00f4ng gi\u1ed1ng nhau, V\u00ec v\u1eady, t\u00ecm hi\u1ec3u T\u00e2n CNTD kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u d\u1ec5 d\u00e0ng. D\u01b0\u1edbi \u0111\u00e2y, ng\u01b0\u1eddi vi\u1ebft s\u1ebd c\u0103n c\u1ee9 tr\u00ean v\u00e0i ba t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a Rorty v\u00e0 Putnam, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 c\u00e1c ngu\u1ed3n kh\u00e1c vi\u1ebft v\u1ec1 h\u1ecd (nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u, tr\u00edch d\u1eabn, ph\u1ecfng v\u1ea5n, tranh lu\u1eadn vv.) nh\u1eb1m khi\u00eam t\u1ed1n gi\u1edbi thi\u1ec7u ng\u1eafn v\u1ec1 T\u00e2n CNTD.<\/p>\n

Nh\u01b0 ch\u00fang ta th\u1eeba bi\u1ebft CNTD ra \u0111\u1eddi ph\u1ea3i c\u1ea1nh tranh v\u1edbi ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a hi\u1ec7n th\u1ef1c (realism) v\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a l\u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng (idealism) \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u1ee9ng t\u1ecf s\u1ef1 v\u01b0\u1ee3t tr\u1ed9i c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh trong nhi\u1ec1u l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c m\u00e0 quan tr\u1ecdng h\u01a1n c\u1ea3 l\u00e0 trong c\u00e1c l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c si\u00eau h\u00ecnh, tri th\u1ee9c lu\u1eadn v\u00e0 l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb. Rorty v\u00e0 Putnam g\u00f3p ph\u1ea7n quan tr\u1ecdng trong vi\u1ec7c h\u1ed3i sinh CNTD c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n, nh\u01b0ng s\u1ef1 \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd cho phong tr\u00e0o n\u00e0y kh\u00e1 kh\u00e1c nhau, v\u00e0 gi\u1eefa h\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng tranh lu\u1eadn dai d\u1eb3ng tuy kh\u00f4ng gay g\u1eaft. Theo Alan Malachowski, t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a nhi\u1ec1u t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m v\u1ec1 T\u00e2n CNTD, th\u00ec Rorty kh\u00f4ng quan t\u00e2m nhi\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ebfn l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft CNTD c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n m\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 mu\u1ed1n hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i h\u00f3a m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 ph\u1ea1m tr\u00f9, nh\u01b0 mu\u1ed1n b\u1edbt \u0111i s\u1ef1 l\u1ec7 thu\u1ed9c c\u1ee7a CNTD v\u00e0o th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 mu\u1ed1n n\u00f3 t\u1eeb b\u1ecf s\u1ef1 s\u00f9ng b\u00e1i ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p khoa h\u1ecdc. Trong khi \u0111\u00f3, Putnam \u2013ch\u01b0a t\u1ef1 nh\u1eadn m\u00ecnh l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo CNTD\u2013 l\u1ea1i nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u k\u1ef9 l\u01b0\u1ee1ng m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a ba t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n n\u00e0y, t\u00ecm ra m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 khuy\u1ebft \u0111i\u1ec3m, so s\u00e1nh v\u1edbi quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u1eddi, r\u1ed3i s\u1eeda sai v\u00e0 b\u1ed5 sung cho ho\u00e0n thi\u1ec7n h\u01a1n. (The Cambridge Companion to Pragmatism, NXB Cambridge University Press, 2013, tr. 5 \u2013 6). Th\u1eadm ch\u00ed, trong m\u1ed9t t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m kh\u00e1c, Malachowski c\u00f2n cho r\u1eb1ng Putnam ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0m c\u00f4ng vi\u1ec7c \u201cchu\u1ea9n b\u1ecb\u201d m\u00e0 ch\u01b0a vi\u1ebft \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u00ec nhi\u1ec1u v\u1ec1 CNTD, tuy nhi\u00ean \u00f4ng nh\u00ecn nh\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng ch\u00ednh uy t\u00edn l\u1edbn lao c\u1ee7a Putnam trong l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc n\u00f3i chung \u0111\u00e3 l\u00f4i cu\u1ed1n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo phong tr\u00e0o h\u1ed3i sinh CNTD.<\/p>\n

Richard Rorty (1931 \u2013 2007)<\/strong><\/span><\/h2>\n

\"\"Rorty theo ch\u01b0\u01a1ng tr\u00ecnh cao h\u1ecdc t\u1ea1i Universiy of Chicago khi tr\u01b0\u1eddng n\u00e0y v\u1eabn c\u00f2n ch\u1ecbu m\u1ed9t ch\u00fat \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a CNTD c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n, tr\u00ecnh lu\u1eadn v\u0103n (thesis) v\u1ec1 si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc. Sau \u0111\u00f3, \u00f4ng ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c ch\u01b0\u01a1ng tr\u00ecnh ti\u1ebfn s\u0129 t\u1ea1i Yale University (1952 \u2013 1956) v\u1edbi c\u00e1c gi\u00e1o s\u01b0 c\u00f3 hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft r\u1ed9ng r\u00e3i v\u1ec1 CNTD c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n n\u00e0y. Lu\u1eadn \u00e1n (dissertation) ra tr\u01b0\u1eddng, The Concept of Potentiality, vi\u1ebft v\u1ec1 l\u1ecbch s\u1eed c\u1ee7a kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m. Trong th\u1eddi gian sinh vi\u00ean c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc ph\u00e2n t\u00edch (analytical philosophy) kh\u00e1 th\u1ecbnh h\u00e0nh. Theo tri\u1ebft thuy\u1ebft n\u00e0y, ti\u1ebfn tr\u00ecnh ph\u00e2n t\u00edch l\u00e0 tr\u1ecdng t\u00e2m c\u1ed1t l\u00f5i \u2013 xin nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh, v\u00ec ch\u1ee7 thuy\u1ebft n\u00e0o l\u1ea1i kh\u00f4ng \u00edt nhi\u1ec1u s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng n\u00f3\u2013 c\u1ee7a ph\u01b0ong ph\u00e1p tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc; ng\u00f4n t\u1eeb th\u01b0\u1eddng ng\u00e0y ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 b\u1ec1 ngo\u00e0i, v\u00e0 trong ti\u1ebfn tr\u00ecnh ph\u00e2n t\u00edch ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 ra \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1ea5u tr\u00fac l\u00fd lu\u1eadn gi\u00fap gi\u1ea3i quy\u1ebft nh\u1eefng v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc. Rorty t\u1ecf ra r\u1ea5t th\u00e0nh th\u1ea1o v\u00e0 th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng trong vi\u1ec7c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p ph\u00e2n t\u00edch n\u00e0y; nh\u01b0ng v\u1ec1 sau \u00f4ng quay l\u1ea1i ch\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1i tr\u01b0\u1edbc s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n m\u1ea1nh m\u1ebd c\u1ee7a n\u00f3. Sau \u0111\u00f3, n\u0103m 1982 \u00f4ng r\u1eddi gh\u1ebf gi\u1ea3ng d\u1ea1y tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc \u1edf Princeton University v\u00ec c\u1ea3m th\u1ea5y kh\u00f4ng y\u00ean t\u00e2m l\u00e0m m\u1ed9t tri\u1ebft gia chuy\u00ean nghi\u1ec7p (professional philosopher) \u0111\u1ec3 nh\u1eadn m\u1ed9t ngh\u1ec1 m\u1edbi li\u00ean ng\u00e0nh, gi\u00e1o s\u01b0 v\u1ec1 nh\u00e2n b\u1ea3n h\u1ecdc (professor of humanities) t\u1ea1i University of Virginia trong g\u1ea7n hai th\u1eadp ni\u00ean. \u0110\u1ebfn n\u0103m 1998, \u00f4ng l\u1ea1i chuy\u1ec3n qua Stanford University b\u00ean mi\u1ec1n T\u00e2y v\u1edbi ch\u1ee9c v\u1ee5 m\u1edbi, gi\u00e1o s\u01b0 v\u0103n ch\u01b0\u01a1ng so chi\u1ebfu (comparative literature).<\/p>\n

Qua ti\u1ec3u s\u1eed ng\u1eafn v\u1ec1 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng ngh\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p \u0111a d\u1ea1ng tr\u00ean, ch\u00fang ta th\u1ea5y c\u00e1c c\u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u \u0111\u1ed3 s\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng s\u1ebd \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp \u0111\u1ebfn nhi\u1ec1u l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c, nh\u01b0ng quan tr\u1ecdng nh\u1ea5t v\u00e0 tr\u01b0\u1edbc ti\u00ean l\u00e0 quy\u1ec3n Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature, NXB Princeton University Press, 2009. Trong l\u1eddi gi\u1edbi thi\u1ec7u \u1ea5n b\u1ea3n k\u1ef7 ni\u1ec7m 30 n\u0103m ng\u00e0y ra \u0111\u1eddi c\u1ee7a t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m n\u00e0y, Michael William cho r\u1eb1ng n\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ea1o ra nh\u1eefng c\u01a1n s\u00f3ng ch\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng tri\u1ebft gia chuy\u00ean nghi\u1ec7p, \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ebfn s\u1ef1 h\u1ed3i sinh c\u1ee7a CNTD M\u1ef9. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t c\u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh bao tr\u00f9m l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c r\u1ed9ng l\u1edbn v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea7y tham v\u1ecdng, bao g\u1ed3m nhi\u1ec1u ph\u1ea1m tr\u00f9, nh\u01b0 tri th\u1ee9c h\u1ecdc, tri\u1ebft l\u00fd v\u1ec1 tr\u00ed n\u00e3o, tri\u1ebft l\u00fd v\u1ec1 ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef, v\u00e0 nhi\u1ec1u th\u1ee9 kh\u00e1c n\u1eefa. Theo Rorty, \u201cTri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc l\u00e0 n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng ph\u1ea7n c\u00f2n l\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a v\u0103n h\u00f3a v\u00ec v\u0103n h\u00f3a l\u00e0 t\u1eadp h\u1ee3p nh\u1eefng \u0111\u00f2i h\u1ecfi c\u1ee7a tri th\u1ee9c, v\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc ph\u00e1n quy\u1ebft nh\u1eefng \u0111\u00f2i h\u1ecfi n\u00e0y. N\u00f3 l\u00e0m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ebf b\u1edfi v\u00ec n\u00f3 hi\u1ec3u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng c\u1ee7a tri th\u1ee9c, \u2026 c\u1ee7a \u201cti\u1ebfn tr\u00ecnh \u0111\u1ed9ng n\u00e3o\u201d (mental process), hay \u201ch\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ea1i di\u1ec7n\u201d (activity of representation) nh\u1edd \u0111\u00f3 m\u00e0 tri th\u1ee9c h\u00ecnh th\u00e0nh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u2026.Tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u00e0ng th\u00eam \u201ckhoa h\u1ecdc\u201d v\u00e0 nghi\u00eam kh\u1eafc h\u01a1n, th\u00ec ph\u1ea7n c\u00f2n l\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a v\u0103n h\u00f3a l\u1ea1i c\u00e0ng tr\u1edf n\u00ean \u00edt \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf h\u01a1n, v\u00e0 c\u00e1c s\u1ef1 ph\u00f4 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng truy\u1ec1n th\u00f4ng d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 tr\u1edf n\u00ean phi l\u00fd h\u01a1n. Tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc n\u00f3i chung b\u1ecb t\u1eeb ch\u1ed1i b\u1edfi nh\u1eefng k\u1ebb mu\u1ed1n c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t \u00fd th\u1ee9c h\u00ea \u2026\u201d Trong b\u1ed1i c\u1ea3nh \u0111\u00f3, Rorty t\u00ecm ra \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c 3 tri\u1ebft gia m\u00e0 \u00f4ng cho l\u00e0 quan trong nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ef7. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 Wittgensten, Heidegger v\u00e0 Dewey; nh\u01b0ng \u00f4ng nh\u1eadn x\u00e9t r\u1eb1ng hai ng\u01b0\u1eddi tr\u01b0\u1edbc ch\u1ec9 quan t\u00e2m \u0111\u1ebfn c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, c\u00f2n Dewey m\u1edbi l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp \u0111\u1ebfn x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i. Rorty cho r\u1eb1ng trong m\u1ed9t x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i l\u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng, v\u0103n ho\u00e1 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f2n b\u1ecb ch\u1ebf ng\u1ef1 b\u1edfi nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c kh\u00e1ch quan l\u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng (ideal objective cognation), m\u00e0 l\u00e0 b\u1edfi s\u1ef1 n\u00e2ng cao v\u1ec1 m\u1ef9 h\u1ecdc (aesthetic enhancement). Theo \u00f4ng, trong n\u1ec1n v\u0103n h\u00f3a \u0111\u00f3, c\u00e1c ng\u00e0nh ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt v\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc s\u1ebd l\u00e0 \u201cnh\u1eefng b\u00f4ng hoa \u0111\u1eddi m\u1ecdc n\u1edf t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean\u201d (unforced flowers of life). Rorty mong mu\u1ed1n ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta r\u00fat l\u1ea1i nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi ph\u00ea ph\u00e1n m\u00e0 h\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 d\u00e0nh cho Dewey, t\u1ee9c k\u1ebft t\u1ed9i \u00f4ng theo ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed1i \u2018relativism\u2019 v\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a phi l\u00fd \u2018irrationalism\u2019. (s\u0111d, tr. 5 \u201313). Trong quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch nh\u1eb1m m\u1ee5c ti\u00eau tranh lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc ph\u00e2n t\u00edch n\u00e0y, Rorty vi\u1ebft v\u1edbi k\u1ef7 thu\u1eadt c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t tri\u1ebft gia ph\u00e2n t\u00edch; nh\u01b0ng sau \u0111\u00f3, \u00f4ng vi\u1ebft v\u1edbi l\u00fd lu\u1eadn h\u1eadu-tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc ph\u00e2n t\u00edch (post analytic philosophy), kh\u00f4ng c\u00f2n xem nh\u1eefng gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ecbnh l\u00e0 c\u1ea7n thi\u1ebft v\u00ec nh\u1eefng gi\u1ea3 d\u1ecbnh \u0111\u1eb7t tr\u00ean n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng ti\u00ean nghi\u1ec7m, m\u00e0 d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean nh\u1eefng m\u1ed1i quan t\u00e2m nh\u00e2n b\u1ea3n kh\u00e1c.
\nTheo Rorty, khoa h\u1ecdc cung \u1ee9ng cho con ng\u01b0\u1eddi hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m, nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 cho bi\u1ebft nh\u1eefng g\u00ec x\u1ea3y ra \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi c\u0103n b\u1ea3n c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft \u0111\u00f3. \u00d4ng l\u1ea7n l\u01b0\u1ee3t ph\u1ee7 nh\u1eadn h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ea1i di\u1ec7n (representationism \u2014 ND: N\u00f3i chung, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft cho r\u1eb1ng tr\u00ed \u00f3c, \u0111\u00f4i khi b\u1ed9 n\u00e3o, h\u00e0nh x\u1eed \u0111\u1ea1i di\u1ec7n cho s\u1ef1 v\u1eadt m\u00e0 ch\u00fang ta h\u00ecnh dung ra, hay suy ngh\u0129 v\u1ec1) c\u1ee7a Descartes, Lockes, Kant m\u00e0 \u00f4ng cho l\u00e0 n\u00f3 ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01b0a ch\u00fang ta t\u1edbi s\u1ef1 t\u00ecm hi\u1ec3u c\u00e1c m\u1ee9c \u0111\u1ed9 kh\u00e1c nhau m\u00e0 th\u00f4i. Rorty cho r\u1eb1ng n\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u201cc\u00e1i c\u00f3 s\u1eb5n\u201d v\u00e0 \u201cc\u00e1i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u00eam v\u00e0o\u201d \u2026. th\u00ec ch\u00fang ta s\u1ebd kh\u00f4ng bi\u1ebft c\u00e1i g\u00ec \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 \u201cs\u1ef1 t\u00e1i d\u1ef1ng h\u1ee3p l\u00fd\u201d (rational reconstruction) c\u1ee7a tri th\u1ee9c, v\u00e0 ch\u00fang ta s\u1ebd kh\u00f4ng bi\u1ebft m\u1ee5c ti\u00eau v\u00e0 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p c\u1ee7a m\u00f4n tri th\u1ee9c h\u1ecdc l\u00e0 g\u00ec. V\u1ec1 kh\u00eda c\u1ea1nh n\u00e0y, Rorty cho r\u1eb1ng th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi hi\u1ec7n h\u1eefu m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp v\u1edbi con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, m\u00e0 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 th\u00ec kh\u00f4ng bao g\u1ed3m trong c\u00e1c tr\u1ea1ng th\u00e1i tinh th\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ea1i di\u1ec7n chi c\u1ea3. Do \u0111\u00f3, thay v\u00ec \u0111i t\u00ecm hi\u1ec3u m\u1ed1i li\u00ean k\u1ebft gi\u1eefa tr\u00ed n\u00e3o v\u00e0 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi, ch\u00fang ta n\u00ean d\u00f9ng ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef th\u00edch h\u1ee3p.
\nLu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 va\u00ec tr\u00f2 c\u1ee7a ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef, Rorty ch\u1ec9 cho th\u1ea5y r\u1eb1ng: \u201cH\u00ecnh \u1ea3nh trong tri\u1ebft l\u00fd c\u1ed5 v\u00e0 trung c\u1ed5 li\u00ean quan \u0111\u1ebfn \u201cnh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ed3 v\u1eadt\u201d (things), c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft l\u00fd su\u1ed1t c\u00e1c th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 16-18 l\u00e0 \u201cnh\u1eefng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng\u201d (ideas) v\u00e0 c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft l\u00fd \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u1eddi l\u00e0 \u201cc\u00e1c t\u1eeb v\u1ef1ng\u201d (words); nh\u01b0ng \u0111\u1eebng v\u00ec th\u1ee9 t\u1ef1 th\u1eddi gian \u0111\u00f3 m\u00e0 cho r\u1eb1ng tri\u1ebft thuy\u1ebft n\u00e0y l\u00e0 s\u01a1 \u0111\u1eb3ng hay tri\u1ebft thuy\u1ebft kia l\u00e0 n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng. \u0110\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng v\u00ec l\u00fd do Arsitotle ngh\u0129 r\u1eb1ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch \u201c\u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng\u201d hay \u201ct\u1eeb v\u1ef1ng\u201d b\u1eb1ng thu\u1eadt ng\u1eef \u201c\u0111\u1ed3 v\u1eadt\u201d, m\u00e0 l\u00e0 v\u00ec Aristotle kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t tri\u1ebft thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 tri th\u1ee9c \u2026. Rorty tin r\u1eb1ng n\u1ebfu ch\u00fang gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u00e1ch m\u00e0 ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef h\u00e0nh x\u1eed (work) th\u00ec \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 c\u0169ng gi\u00fap ch\u00fang ta hi\u1ec3u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u00e1ch m\u00e0 ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef g\u1eafn ch\u1eb7t v\u1edbi nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i, v\u00e0 do \u0111\u00f3 c\u0169ng hi\u1ec3u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1eb1ng ph\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u00e1ch n\u00e0o m\u00e0 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd v\u00e0 tri th\u1ee9c \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 c\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c. (s\u0111d. tr 257 \u2013 273)<\/p>\n

\"\"Trong b\u00e0i n\u00f3i chuy\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i tr\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc UC Berkely n\u0103m 1980, b\u00e0n v\u1ec1 vai tr\u00f2 c\u1ee7a ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p khoa h\u1ecdc trong vi\u1ec7c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u, Rorty gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch r\u1eb1ng khi th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng, Galileo n\u00f3i quy\u1ec3n S\u00e1ch Thi\u00ean Nhi\u00ean (the Book of Nature) \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c vi\u1ebft b\u1eb1ng t\u1eeb v\u1ef1ng to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc, th\u00ec \u00f4ng ta mu\u1ed1n n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng t\u1eeb v\u1ef1ng to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc kh\u00f4ng t\u00ecnh c\u1edd mang l\u1ea1i k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3, m\u00e0 n\u00f3 mang l\u1ea1i k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 ch\u1ec9 v\u00ec m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9 v\u1ed1n \u0111\u00e3 s\u1eb5n b\u00e0y r\u1ed3i, nay t\u1eeb v\u1ef1ng to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc mang l\u1ea1i k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 b\u1edfi v\u00ec n\u00f3 th\u00edch h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 c\u00e1i ch\u00eca kh\u00f3a v\u1eeba kh\u00edt v\u1edbi \u1ed1ng kho\u00e1 v\u1eady. Theo Rorty, t\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3 c\u00e1c tri\u1ebft gia c\u1ee9 c\u1ed1 g\u1eafng, v\u00e0 th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i, khi c\u1ea3m nh\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p mang l\u1ea1i k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 b\u1edfi v\u00ec m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9 v\u1ed1n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u00e0y s\u1eb5n r\u1ed3i. V\u00e0 c\u0169ng t\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3, trong ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u, c\u00e1c thu\u1eadt ng\u1eef \u201ckh\u00e1ch quan\u201d, \u201cnghi\u00eam kh\u1eafc\u201d, \u201cph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p\u201d \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u01b0a ra l\u00e0m ranh gi\u1edbi bi\u1ec7t l\u1eadp gi\u1eefa khoa h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng-khoa h\u1ecdc. Ch\u1eb3ng m\u1ea5y ai d\u00e1m \u0111\u01b0a ra \u00fd ki\u1ebfn l\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc ch\u1eb3ng c\u00f3 g\u00ec b\u00ed m\u1eadt cho s\u1ef1 th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng c\u1ea3; l\u1ea1i c\u00e0ng ch\u1eb3ng c\u00f3 m\u1ea5y ai gi\u1ea3i thich \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u00ec sao t\u1eeb v\u1ef1ng v\u1ec1 d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 t\u1ef1 do (vocabulary of liberal democracy) l\u1ea1i mang \u0111\u1ebfn k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 t\u1ed1t \u0111\u1eb9p nh\u01b0 ng\u00e0y nay. Rorty x\u00e1c nh\u1eadn m\u00ecnh tin r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m tuy\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ed1i (kh\u00e1ch quan) v\u1ec1 hi\u1ec7n th\u1ef1c, ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p khoa h\u1ecdc th\u00ec ho\u1eb7c kh\u00f4ng r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng, ho\u1eb7c kh\u00f4ng h\u1eefu d\u1ee5ng; v\u00e0 \u00f4ng khuy\u00ean m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u khoa h\u1ecdc x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i n\u00ean theo ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p c\u1ee7a Dewey v\u1ed1n nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh \u0111\u1ebfn ph\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u00e1ch tr\u1ea7n thu\u1eadt (narrative) v\u00e0 t\u1eeb v\u1ef1ng, h\u01a1n l\u00e0 t\u00ednh kh\u00e1ch quan c\u1ee7a lu\u1eadt ph\u00e1p v\u00e0 l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft. \u2026Theo Rorty, c\u00f3 hai \u0111\u00f2i h\u1ecfi ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi t\u1eeb v\u1ef1ng d\u00f9ng nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u trong c\u00e1c khoa h\u1ecdc x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i: (1) N\u00f3 ph\u1ea3i bao g\u1ed3m nh\u1eefng m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 c\u00e1c t\u00ecnh hu\u1ed1ng gi\u00fap l\u00e0m d\u1ec5 d\u00e0ng cho vi\u1ec7c ti\u00ean \u0111o\u00e1n v\u00e0 ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t, v\u00e0 (2) N\u00f3 ph\u1ea3i bao g\u1ed3m nh\u1eefng m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 gi\u00fap ng\u01b0\u1eddi nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0m g\u00ec\u2026. \u0110\u1ed1i nhu c\u1ea7u c\u1ea7n b\u1ecf \u0111i c\u00e1c kh\u00e1i ni\u00eam truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng, nh\u01b0 t\u00ednh h\u1ee3p l\u00fd, t\u00ednh kh\u00e1ch quan, ph\u01b0ong ph\u00e1p, ch\u00e2n l\u00fd, Rorty cho r\u1eb1ng quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a Nietzsche v\u00e0 quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a CNTD kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 g\u00ec kh\u00e1c nhau. Khi Nietzsche cho r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u1ed1i t\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c tri\u1ebft gia l\u00e0 ph\u1ea3i s\u1ea3n sinh ra s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt th\u00f4ng qua quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c, v\u00e0 h\u1ecd kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 h\u00e0nh x\u1eed quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c tr\u1eeb phi ph\u1ea3i th\u00f4ng qua s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt, v\u00e0 r\u1eb1ng \u0111i\u1ec1u sai l\u1ea7m c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc thay v\u00ec d\u00f9ng logic v\u00e0 l\u00fd lu\u1eadn nh\u01b0 nh\u1eefng ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ti\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111em l\u1ea1i c\u1ee9u c\u00e1nh \u00edch d\u1ee5ng cho th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi, th\u00ec ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta l\u1ea1i ngh\u0129 r\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ti\u1ec7n n\u00e0y s\u1ebd \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t ti\u00eau chu\u1ea9n ch\u00e2n l\u00fd v\u1ec1 hi\u1ec7n th\u1ef1c, th\u00ec theo Rorty, James \u0111\u00e3 cho r\u1eb1ng \u201cc\u00e1c \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh s\u1ef1 th\u1ef1c ch\u1ec9 khi ch\u00fang gi\u00fap ch\u00fang ta nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c ra m\u1ed1i li\u00ean h\u1ec7 th\u1ecfa \u0111\u00e1ng v\u1edbi tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m\u201d, v\u00e0 Dewey c\u0169ng vi\u1ebft l\u00e0 \u201ct\u00ednh h\u1ee3p l\u00fd l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u00e0i h\u00f2a kh\u1ea3 d\u0129 gi\u1eefa c\u00e1c \u01b0\u1edbc mu\u1ed1n kh\u00e1c nhau.\u201d (Consequences of Pragmatism, NXB University of Minnesota Press, 1982 tr. 191 \u2013 195)<\/p>\n

Trong ph\u1ea7n gi\u1edbi thi\u1ec7u tuy\u1ec3n t\u1eadp Pragmatism as Anti-Authoritarianism (H\u0110 Eduardo Mendieta, NXB Harvard University Press, 2021), Robert Brandom vi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m g\u1ed3m 10 b\u00e0i n\u00f3i chuy\u1ec7n quan tr\u1ecdng n\u00e0y c\u1ee7a Rorty nh\u1eb1m m\u1ee5c ti\u00eau gi\u00fap ch\u00fang ta, v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng di\u1ec7n l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 v\u1ec1 th\u1ef1c h\u00e0nh, tho\u00e1t kh\u1ecfi ph\u1ea3i ch\u1ecbu \u0111\u1ef1ng c\u00e1c quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c phi nh\u00e2n. Rorty mu\u1ed1n CNTD \u0111em l\u1ea1i nh\u1eefng thay \u0111\u1ed5i l\u1edbn lao, t\u1ea1o n\u00ean m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c \u201cS\u00e1ng Th\u1ebf\u201d th\u1ee9 hai (a second Enlightenment), kh\u00f4ng c\u00f2n xem quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c v\u00e0 tr\u00e1ch nhi\u1ec7m l\u00e0 ph\u1ea3i ph\u1ee5 thu\u1ed9c v\u00e0 v\u00e2ng l\u1eddi, nh\u01b0 truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng, ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 CNTD ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i to\u00e0n tr\u1ecb, nh\u01b0 t\u1ef1a \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1ee7a quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch \u0111\u00e3 n\u00eau ra. V\u1ec1 ph\u1ea7n m\u00ecnh, Rorty ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i v\u1ed1n ng\u1edd v\u1ef1c c\u00e1c gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb T\u00e2y ph\u01b0\u01a1ng nay n\u00ean theo T\u00e2y ph\u01b0\u01a1ng b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch b\u1ecf ch\u1ebf \u0111\u1ed9 n\u00f4 l\u1ec7, th\u1ef1c h\u00e0nh s\u1ef1 khoan dung t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o, khuy\u1ebfn kh\u00edch n\u1ec1n gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c cho ph\u1ee5 n\u1eef, khoan dung h\u00f4n nh\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed3ng t\u00ednh, cho ph\u00e9p h\u00f4n nh\u00e2n gi\u1eefa c\u00e1c ch\u1ee7ng t\u1ed9c, ph\u1ee7 nh\u1eadn chi\u1ebfn tranh m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch c\u00f3 \u00fd th\u1ee9c v.v. \u00d4ng khuy\u1ebfn kh\u00edch ch\u00fang ta l\u00e0m \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y v\u1edbi t\u01b0 c\u00e1ch l\u00e0 th\u00e0nh vi\u00ean tinh th\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a c\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi. \u0110i\u1ec3m quan tr\u1ecdng \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 \u00f4ng cho r\u1eb1ng ch\u00fang ta n\u00ean t\u1eeb b\u1ecf ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129 duy l\u00fd th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 S\u00e1ng Th\u1ebf n\u00e0y (Enlightenment rationalism) v\u00ec t\u1eeb b\u1ecf n\u00f3 th\u00ec m\u1edbi c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 d\u1ec5 ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn nh\u1eefng gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb kh\u00e1c (kh\u00f4ng T\u00e2y ph\u01b0\u01a1ng); v\u1ea3 ch\u0103ng \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c tri\u1ebft gia chuy\u00ean nghi\u1ec7p! Rorty ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng ch\u00fang ta n\u00ean theo ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a t\u1ef1 do th\u1eddi S\u00e1ng Th\u1ebf (Enlightenment liberalism) \u2014 m\u00e0 theo ng\u01b0\u1eddi vi\u1ebft \u00f4ng mu\u1ed1n ch\u00fang ta hi\u1ec3u theo c\u1ea3 hai ngh\u0129a: ngh\u0129a ti\u00eau c\u1ef1c (t\u1ee9c t\u00f4n tr\u1ecdng t\u1ef1 do c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n, kh\u00f4ng can thi\u1ec7p v\u00e0o \u0111\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng. sinh ho\u1ea1t ri\u00eang t\u01b0 vv.) l\u1eabn ngh\u0129a t\u00edch c\u1ef1c (ngo\u00e0i ngh\u0129a ti\u00eau c\u1ef1c ra, c\u00f2n c\u00f3 th\u1ec3\/n\u00ean can thi\u1ec7p \u0111\u1ec3 t\u1ea1o c\u00f4ng b\u1eb1ng x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i. (s\u0111d tr.157 \u2013 158)<\/p>\n

Rorty, khi k\u00eau g\u1ecdi c\u1ea3i t\u1ed5 x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i nh\u1eb1m t\u1ea1o d\u1ef1ng c\u00f4ng b\u1eb1ng x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i cho Hoa K\u1ef3, \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1eafn v\u1edbi c\u00e1c h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 c\u00e1nh t\u1ea3 l\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u0103n h\u00f3a n\u1eefa v\u00ec nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u0103n h\u00f3a \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u1ecdc g\u1ec9\u1ea3 M\u00e1c x\u00edt l\u00e0m nhi\u1ec1u r\u1ed3i, m\u00e0 n\u00ean n\u1ed5 l\u1ef1c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb \u0111\u1ec3 huy \u0111\u1ed9ng ni\u1ec1m h\u00e3nh di\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi M\u1ef9 v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng c\u1ee7a Hoa K\u1ef3, \u0111\u1ec3 t\u00f4n vinh gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb n\u1ec1n d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 M\u1ef9, xem n\u01b0\u1edbc M\u1ef9 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ngo\u1ea1i l\u1ec7, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 cao ni\u1ec1m tin v\u00e0 truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi M\u1ef9, m\u00e0 t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u00f4ng g\u1ecdi chung l\u00e0 \u201ct\u00f4n gi\u00e1o d\u00e2n s\u1ef1\u201d (civil religious \u2014 ch\u1eef do Jean J. Rousseau \u0111\u1eb7t ra \u0111\u1ec3 ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t v\u1edbi nh\u00e0 th\u1edd v\u00e0 c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh ch\u1ebf t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o kh\u00e1c). Theo \u00f4ng, c\u00e1nh t\u1ea3 v\u1eabn c\u00f2n ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c ngh\u0129 d\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng s\u1eafc t\u1ed9c v\u00e0 thi\u1ec3u s\u1ed1 b\u1ecb \u00e1p b\u1ee9c, n\u01b0\u1edbc M\u1ef9 kh\u00f4ng n\u00ean l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t c\u00e1i n\u1ed3i n\u1ea5u tan ch\u1ea3y m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9 (a melting pot). \u00d4ng cho r\u1eb1ng, \u201cC\u00e1nh t\u1ea3 n\u00e0y mu\u1ed1n duy tr\u00ec c\u00e1i \u0111i\u1ec1u kh\u00e1c, h\u01a1n l\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng th\u00e8m \u0111\u1ec3 \u00fd t\u1edbi n\u00f3 (This Left wants to preserve otherness, rather than ignore it). \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi \u00f4ng, ng\u01b0\u1eddi M\u1ef9 ph\u1ea3i m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 x\u1ee9 s\u1edf m\u00ecnh d\u01b0\u1edbi h\u00ecnh th\u00e1i m\u00e0 m\u00ecnh hy v\u1ecdng n\u00f3 s\u1ebd tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 theo c\u00e1ch m\u00e0 m\u00ecnh bi\u1ebft hi\u00ean nay n\u00f3 \u0111ang nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf n\u00e0o. N\u00f3i t\u00f3m l\u1ea1i, ng\u01b0\u1eddi M\u1ef9 ph\u1ea3i s\u1ed1ng v\u1edbi v\u00e0 tranh \u0111\u1ea5u cho m\u1ed9t n\u01b0\u1edbc M\u1ef9 m\u00e0 m\u00ecnh m\u01a1 \u01b0\u1edbc. (Achieving Our Country: Leftist Thought in Twentieth-Century America, TG Richard Rorty, NXB Harvard University Press, 1998, tr. 3 \u201318 v\u00e0 tr. 100 \u2013107). \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t l\u1eddi khuy\u00ean t\u1ed1t c\u1ee7a Rorty, kh\u00f4ng nh\u1eefng \u0111\u00fang cho ng\u01b0\u1eddi M\u1ef9, m\u00e0 c\u00f2n cho c\u00f4ng d\u00e2n c\u1ee7a m\u1ecdi qu\u1ed1c gia tr\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi. Tuy nhi\u00ean, ch\u00fang ta c\u0169ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ngh\u0129 Rorty kh\u00f4ng ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n \u0111\u00fang \u00f4ng khi ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng r\u1eb1ng nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u0103n h\u00f3a v\u00e0 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb l\u00e0 hai l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c n\u00ean t\u00e1ch r\u1eddi nhau; th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf cho th\u1ea5y, ngay c\u1ea3 trong nh\u1eefng n\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111ang ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n, s\u1ef1 \u00e1p \u0111\u1eb7t m\u1ed9t \u201c\u00fd th\u1ee9c h\u1ec7 ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb\u201d ngo\u1ea1i nh\u1eadp l\u00ean m\u1ed9t n\u1ec1n v\u0103n h\u00f3a truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a \u0111\u1ebfn xung \u0111\u1ed9t \u0111\u1eabm m\u00e1u, hay tan v\u1ee1 kh\u00f3 h\u00e0n g\u1eafn, hay ph\u1ea3i l\u00e2u l\u1eafm m\u1edbi h\u00e0n g\u1eafn l\u1ea1i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c, tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i \u0111\u00f3 ch\u1eadp ch\u1eefng b\u01b0\u1edbc t\u1edbi theo ng\u1ecdn c\u1edd m\u1edbi.<\/p>\n

Hilary Putnam (1926 \u2013 2016)<\/strong><\/span><\/h2>\n

\"\"Putnam theo h\u1ecdc ch\u01b0\u01a1ng tr\u00ecnh c\u1eed nh\u00e2n t\u1ea1i University of Pennsylvania. Sau \u0111\u00f3 h\u1ecdc m\u1ed9t n\u0103m t\u1ea1i Harvard Univerity, r\u1ed3i chuy\u1ec3n qua University of California (Berkely) v\u00e0 t\u1ed1t nghi\u1ec7p PhD v\u1edbi lu\u1eadn \u00e1n ti\u1ebfn s\u0129 v\u1ec1 x\u00e1c su\u1ea5t. T\u1eeb 1965, \u00f4ng d\u1ea1y t\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc Harvard v\u00e0 nhi\u1ec1u n\u01a1i tr\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi v\u1edbi nhi\u1ec1u m\u00f4n kh\u00e1c nhau. C\u00e1c c\u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u1ea5n h\u00e0nh li\u00ean quan \u0111\u1ebfn tri\u1ebft l\u00fd v\u1ec1 khoa h\u1ecdc, v\u1ec1 si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 v\u1ec1 to\u00e1n; kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 b\u00e1o hi\u1ec7u n\u00e0o quan tr\u1ecdng cho bi\u1ebft \u00f4ng s\u1ebd chuy\u1ec3n sang tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng. T\u1eeb 1980 tr\u1edf \u0111i, \u00f4ng vi\u1ebft nhi\u1ec1u trong l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c CNTD nh\u1eb1m b\u1ed5 sung quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a ba tri\u1ebft gia ti\u1ec1n phong c\u1ee7a phong tr\u00e0o n\u00e0y, Pierce, Dewey tr\u01b0\u1edbc r\u1ed3i m\u1edbi t\u1edbi James.
\nTheo Cheryl Misak, th\u00ec ngay t\u1eeb n\u0103m 1976, trong b\u00e0i di\u1ec5n v\u0103n khai m\u1ea1c v\u1edbi t\u01b0 c\u00e1ch Ch\u1ee7 T\u1ecbch Hi\u1ec7p H\u1ed9i Tri\u1ebft H\u1ecdc M\u1ef9 (American Philosophical Association), Putnam \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e2n t\u00edch r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng s\u1ef1 kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t gi\u1eefa thuy\u1ebft hi\u1ec7n th\u1ef1c si\u00eau h\u00ecnh (metaphysical realism) m\u00e0 \u00f4ng b\u00e1c b\u1ecf v\u00e0 thuy\u1ebft hi\u1ec7n th\u1ef1c n\u1ed9i t\u00e2m (internal realism) m\u00e0 \u00f4ng xem l\u00e0 \u0111\u00e1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u th\u00eam. Thuy\u1ebft tr\u01b0\u1edbc l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t lo\u1ea1i tri\u1ebft thuy\u1ebft th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng c\u1ee7a Pierce, theo \u0111\u00f3 s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u v\u00f4 c\u00f9ng h\u1ee3p l\u00fd \u0111\u00e1ng tin theo. \u00d4ng n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng t\u00ednh duy l\u00fd l\u00e0 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh c\u00e1c v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 li\u00ean h\u1ec7 v\u00e0 c\u00e1c c\u00e2u tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u00e1o tr\u01b0\u1edbc, v\u00e0 t\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3 \u201cl\u00fd thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt \u0111\u01b0a ra ti\u1ec1n-g\u1ec9\u1ea3-\u0111\u1ecbnh (ND: t\u1ee9c \u0111\u01b0a ra tr\u01b0\u1edbc nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 m\u00e0 m\u00ecnh coi l\u00e0 \u0111\u00fang) v\u1ec1 thuy\u1ebft duy l\u00fd), m\u00e0 l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ebfn l\u01b0\u1ee3t n\u00f3 l\u1ea1i \u0111\u01b0a ra ti\u1ec1n-gi\u1ea3-\u0111\u1ecbnh v\u1ec1 l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft \u0111i\u1ec1u thi\u1ec7n\u201d (theory of truth presupposes theory of rationality which in turn presupposes our theory of the good\u201d. Quan \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00e0y n\u1edf r\u1ed9 trong c\u00e1c c\u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u c\u1ee7a Putnam trong th\u1eadp ni\u00ean 1980, nh\u01b0ng \u00f4ng v\u1eabn lu\u00f4n c\u1ea9n tr\u1ecdng tr\u00e1nh ch\u1ec9 r\u00f5 v\u1ecb th\u1ebf c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi Pierce; \u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 mu\u1ed1n cung \u1ee9ng ph\u01b0ong c\u00e1ch x\u00e1c nh\u1eadn th\u1eadn tr\u1ecdng (gentle verificationism) nh\u1eb1m cho ph\u00e9p ch\u00fang ta \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ecdi lo\u1ea1i tra v\u1ea5n kh\u00e1c h\u01a1n l\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 tra v\u1ea5n khoa h\u1ecdc. Theo Putnam, c\u00e1ch x\u00e1c nh\u1eadn theo \u00fd ngh\u0129a n\u00e0y v\u00e0 c\u00e1ch x\u00e1c nh\u1eadn theo \u00fd ngh\u0129a t\u00edch c\u1ef1c cho th\u1ea5y r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng s\u1ef1 kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t gi\u1eefa th\u00e1i \u0111\u1ed9 r\u1ed9ng l\u01b0\u1ee3ng v\u00e0 c\u1edfi m\u1edf m\u00e0 William James g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng v\u00e0 t\u00ednh s\u00f9ng b\u00e1i khoa h\u1ecdc.
\nTrong quy\u1ec3n Realism with a Human Face (H\u0110 James Conant, NXB Harvard University Press, 1990) gom g\u00f3p m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 b\u00e0i n\u00f3i chuy\u1ec7n quan tr\u1ecdng c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh, trong \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 b\u00e0i vi\u1ebft chung v\u1edbi v\u1ee3 (Ruth Anna), Putnam ph\u00ea ph\u00e1n Peirce, James v\u00e0 Dewey c\u00f2n mang nhi\u1ec1u t\u01b0 c\u00e1ch kh\u00e1c ngo\u00e0i t\u01b0 c\u00e1ch nh\u00e0 th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng (pragmatist), ch\u1eb3ng h\u1ea1n Pierce c\u00f2n l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem theo ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed1i (relativism), William c\u00f2n theo ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m c\u1ef1c \u0111oan (radical empiricism), Dewey c\u00f2n l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo thuy\u1ebft ti\u1ebfn h\u00f3a (evolutionism). C\u00e1ch nh\u00ecn thu\u1ea7n khi\u1ebft n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn, vi\u1ec7n l\u00fd do r\u1eb1ng mu\u1ed1n \u0111\u1ea1t t\u1edbi s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt, th\u00ec c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1eed nghi\u1ec7m hay th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m b\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng ph\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u00e1ch kh\u00e1c nhau \u2013v\u1ea3 ch\u0103ng \u0111\u00f3 c\u0169ng l\u00e0 t\u00ednh \u0111a d\u1ea1ng c\u1ee7a CNTD nh\u01b0 James \u0111\u00e3 t\u1eebng vi\u1ebft, v\u00e0 nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 CNTD c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Dewey g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5 (instrumentism) so v\u1edbi c\u00e1c ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a kh\u00e1c. D\u01b0\u1edbi \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u00e0i nh\u1eadn \u0111\u1ecbnh c\u1ee7a \u0111\u00f4i v\u1ee3 ch\u1ed3ng n\u00e0y v\u1ec1 Peirce, James v\u00e0 Dewy.
\nTrong b\u00e0i vi\u1ebft chung v\u1ec1 James (tr. 217 -228), \u00f4ng b\u00e0 Putnam nh\u1eadn x\u00e9t r\u1eb1ng c\u1ea3 ba tri\u1ebft gia th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 kh\u00f4ng r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng v\u1ec1 tri th\u1ee9c lu\u1eadn (epistemology). Peirce tuy ch\u1ec9 r\u00f5 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t gi\u1eefa ph\u00e1t minh l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft khoa h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch (explanatory scientific theory m\u00e0 \u00f4ng g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 \u201cabduction\u201d) v\u00e0 nhi\u1ec1u lo\u1ea1i di\u1ec5n gi\u1ea3i qui n\u1ea1p s\u01a1 \u0111\u1eb3ng kh\u00e1c, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng r\u1eb1ng ni\u1ec1m tin c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem x\u00e9t l\u1ea1i (m\u00e0 \u00f4ng g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 fallibilism) v\u00e0 nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft khoa h\u1ecdc ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u1eafc nghi\u1ec7m, nh\u01b0ng l\u1ea1i cho r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc c\u1ea7n c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng tr\u1ef1c gi\u00e1c t\u1ed1t (good intuitons) nh\u01b0 tr\u1ef1c gi\u00e1c \u0111\u1ec1 ra l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft, tr\u1ef1c gi\u00e1c \u0111\u1ec1 ra th\u1ee9 t\u1ef1 c\u1ea7n l\u00e0m theo \u0111\u1ec3 tr\u1eafc nghi\u1ec7m nh\u1eefng l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n trong \u0111\u1ea7u. Quan s\u00e1t n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c James v\u00e0 Dewey ti\u1ebfp nh\u1eadn v\u00e0 tri\u1ec3n khai b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch minh th\u1ecb x\u00e1c nh\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p lu\u1eadn ti\u1ebfn tri\u1ec3n trong khi tra v\u1ea5n. Theo hai t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 Putnam, th\u00ec ng\u00e0y nay c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ec1 ra nh\u1eefng ph\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u00e1ch m\u1edbi; trong \u0111\u00f3 m\u1ed9t h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 c\u00f3 t\u00ean l\u00e0 W.V.O. Quine \u0111\u01b0a ra \u00fd ki\u1ebfn l\u00e0 ti\u1ebfn tr\u00ecnh tra v\u1ea5n g\u1ed3m nh\u1eefng trao \u0111\u1ed5i (trade-offs) gi\u1eefa \u0111i\u1ec1u gi\u1ea3n d\u1ecb, s\u1ef1 duy tr\u00ec h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft c\u0169 v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 ti\u00ean \u0111o\u00e1n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ecdn sau c\u00f9ng (James c\u0169ng ngh\u0129 th\u1ebf) ; tuy nhi\u00ean Quine t\u1ecf \u00fd nghi ng\u1edd v\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c l\u00e0m cho nh\u1eefng trao \u0111\u1ed5i n\u00e0y c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c r\u00fat gi\u1ea3m l\u1ea1i th\u00e0nh nh\u1eefng qui lu\u1eadt ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c.<\/p>\n

Ph\u00ea b\u00ecnh James nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t tri\u1ebft gia tinh th\u1ea7n (a moral philosopher), hai t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 n\u00e0y cho bi\u1ebft James ph\u1ee7 nh\u1eadn tri th\u1ee9c lu\u1eadn truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng v\u1ec1 d\u1eef ki\u1ec7n c\u1ea3m nh\u1eadn (traditional sense-datum epistemology) v\u00e0 t\u1ef1 h\u1ecfi l\u00e0m sao ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111i \u0111\u1ebfn hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft v\u1ec1 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi chung n\u00e0y khi m\u00e0 ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t con s\u1ed1 r\u1ea5t l\u1edbn nh\u1eefng th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi ri\u00eang t\u01b0 (private worlds), g\u1ed3m th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi c\u00e1c d\u1eef ki\u1ec7n c\u1ea3m nh\u1eadn c\u1ee7a anh, c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i, c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0y, c\u1ee7a k\u1ebb n\u1ecd vv. ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 c\u1ee7a v\u00f4 s\u1ed1 ng\u01b0\u1eddi. H\u1ecd c\u0169ng l\u00fd lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng ngay c\u1ea3 trong tri th\u1ee9c lu\u1eadn thu\u1ea7n khi\u1ebft v\u00e0 si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc, th\u00ec m\u1ed1i quan t\u00e2m v\u1ec1 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng th\u00e0nh vi\u00ean t\u01b0\u01a1ng thu\u1ed9c c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t c\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng \u0111\u00e3 h\u01b0\u1edbng d\u1eabn James trong m\u1ecdi l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u. H\u1ecd c\u0169ng ch\u1ec9 cho th\u1ea5y James ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t hai th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi. M\u1ed9t l\u00e0 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi bi\u1ebft c\u1ea3m nh\u1eadn (sentient being) m\u00e0 James g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 \u201cni\u1ec1m c\u00f4 \u0111\u01a1n tinh th\u1ea7n\u201d (moral solitude), \u1edf \u0111\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 ni\u1ec1m tin n\u00e0o \u0111\u1ef1\u1ee3c xem l\u00e0 th\u1eadt c\u1ea3 v\u00ec s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ecbnh tr\u01b0\u1edbc l\u00e0 c\u00e1i g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 \u1edf b\u00ean ngo\u00e0i ng\u01b0\u1eddi ngh\u0129. V\u00e0 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi kia l\u00e0 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u \u201cni\u1ec1m c\u00f4 \u0111\u01a1n tinh th\u1ea7n\u201d nh\u01b0ng ch\u1eb3ng ai quan t\u00e2m t\u1edbi ai c\u1ea3, v\u00ec s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ecbnh tr\u01b0\u1edbc l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t c\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ed3ng. Theo hai t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3, ch\u1ec9 y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 c\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng th\u00f4i th\u00ec ch\u01b0a \u0111\u1ee7. H\u1ecd cho r\u1eb1ng theo nhi\u1ec1u nh\u00e0 th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng uy t\u00edn kh\u00e1c, th\u00ec \u201cch\u00e2n l\u00fd\u201d c\u1ee7a gi\u00e1o ph\u00e1i Khomeini kh\u00f4ng x\u1ee9ng \u0111\u00e1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd b\u1edfi v\u00ec n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u00e1p \u1ee9ng cho \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec kh\u00e1c ngo\u1ea1i tr\u1eeb \u00fd ch\u00ed c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00e3nh \u0111\u1ea1o. Theo hai t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3, m\u1ed9t c\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng \u0111\u1eb7t th\u1eed th\u00e1ch c\u00e1c ni\u1ec1m tin tr\u01b0\u1edbc tr\u1eafc nghi\u1ec7m l\u00e0 \u0111\u00f2i h\u1ecfi t\u1ed1i thi\u1ec3u cho s\u1ef1 hi\u00ean h\u1eefu c\u1ee7a ch\u00e2n l\u00fd. C\u00e1i nh\u00ecn quan tr\u1ecdng n\u00e0y v\u1ec1 m\u1ed1i li\u00ean h\u1ec7 s\u00e2u s\u1eafc gi\u1eefa ch\u00e2n l\u00fd, th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf v\u00e0 c\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng \u0111\u00e3 gi\u00fap James \u0111\u01b0a ra kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m \u201ct\u00f4n gi\u00e1o trung quan\u201d (melioristic region \u2013ND: meliorism l\u00e0 ch\u1eef \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1eb7t ra \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u1ec9 th\u00e1i \u0111\u1ed9 gi\u1eefa bi quan v\u00e0 l\u1ea1c quan, ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng con ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng l\u00e0m cho th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi t\u1ed1t \u0111\u1eb9p h\u01a1n)<\/p>\n

C\u0169ng trong quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch n\u00e0y, Putnam b\u00e1c b\u1ecf \u00fd ki\u1ebfn c\u1ee7a James khi James cho r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u1ebfn nay ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta v\u1eabn ch\u01b0a bi\u1ebft \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u00fac n\u00e0o ch\u00fang ta \u0111ang \u201c\u1ea3o t\u01b0\u1edfng\u201d v\u00e0 l\u00fac n\u00e0o ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng \u1ea3o t\u01b0\u1edfng. (ND: hallucination, m\u1ed9t t\u00e2m b\u1ec7nh m\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u1eafc ph\u1ea3i cho bi\u1ebft m\u00ecnh \u0111\u00f4i khi th\u1ea5y hay nghe m\u1ed9t th\u1ee9 g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 tr\u00ean th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf). Theo Putnam, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 v\u00ec James kh\u00f4ng th\u1ea5y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u00e1ch m\u00e0 nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi v\u1ed1n ch\u1ec9 quen thu\u1ed9c v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ed3 v\u1eadt\/s\u1ef1 v\u1eadt ri\u00eang t\u01b0 c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh, l\u1ea1i c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ti\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ebfn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft v\u00e0 th\u1eadm ch\u00ed t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a nhau qua ti\u1ebfn tr\u00ecnh gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch.
\nQua m\u1ed9t b\u00e0i vi\u1ebft c\u00f3 t\u1ef1a \u0111\u1ec1 A Reconsideration of Deweyan Democracy (\u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c in trong Pragmatism in Law & Society, H\u0110 Michael Brint & William Weaver, NXB Westview Press, 1991, Ch. 12 tr. 217 \u2013 240), Putnam v\u1edbi nh\u00e3n quan c\u1ee7a nh\u00e0 th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng, \u0111\u00e3 kh\u1ea3o s\u00e1t t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb v\u00e0 x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i c\u1ee7a Dewe\u1ef5 v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo Dewey. Tr\u01b0\u1edbc h\u1ebft \u00f4ng t\u00f3m t\u1eaft quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a nh\u00e0 th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng ti\u1ec1n phong n\u00e0y nh\u01b0 sau: D\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 kh\u00f4ng nh\u1eefng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t d\u1ea1ng th\u1ee9c trong nhi\u1ec1u d\u1ea1ng th\u1ee9c kh\u00e1c c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i, m\u00e0 c\u00f2n l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n ti\u00ean quy\u1ebft trong vi\u1ec7c \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng tr\u00ed th\u00f4ng minh \u0111\u1ec3 gi\u1ea3i quy\u1ebft c\u00e1c v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i. Sau \u0111\u00f3 \u00f4ng lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 tr\u00ed th\u00f4ng minh v\u00e0 vi\u1ec7c gi\u1ea3i quy\u1ebft v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1. Theo \u00f4ng, Dewey cho r\u1eb1ng tr\u00ed th\u00f4ng minh (t\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u1ea3n v\u1edbi l\u00fd l\u1ebb, m\u1ed9t kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m trong tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng) kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng si\u00eau ph\u00e0m (transcendental faculty); m\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01a1n gi\u1ea3n l\u00e0 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng h\u1ecdach \u0111\u1ecbnh cu\u1ed9c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u, bi\u1ebft \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00e1c s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n li\u00ean quan, l\u00e0m c\u00e1c th\u1eed nghi\u1ec7m v\u00e0 h\u01b0\u1edfng d\u1ee5ng vi\u1ec7c ho\u1ea1ch \u0111\u1ecbnh, c\u00e1c s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n v\u00e0 c\u00e1c th\u1eed nghi\u1ec7m \u0111\u00f3. Kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c coi nh\u01b0 kh\u00e1 m\u01a1 h\u1ed3; nh\u01b0ng qu\u1ea3 th\u1ef1c c\u00f3 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ai th\u00f4ng minh \u00edt ho\u1eb7c nhi\u1ec1u trong vi\u1ec7c d\u1eabn d\u1eaft cu\u1ed9c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u. Putnam c\u0169ng tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p l\u1edbn nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a Dewey l\u00e0 khi x\u00e1c quy\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 v\u00e0 c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7n m\u1ed9t \u201cl\u00fd thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9\u201d (theory of everything), \u0111\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh r\u1eb1ng \u0111i\u1ec1u c\u1ea7n thi\u1ebft l\u00e0 hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft s\u00e2u s\u1eafc (insight) v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u00e1ch m\u00e0 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi gi\u1ea3i quy\u1ebft c\u00e1c t\u00ecnh hu\u1ed1ng. Putnam cho r\u1eb1ng Dewey \u0111\u00e3 t\u1eebng \u0111\u01b0a ra \u00fd ki\u1ebfn nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf, nh\u01b0ng m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 nh\u00e0 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u1eddi (th\u1eadp ni\u00ean 1980) \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng nh\u1eadn ra, hay hi\u1ec3u kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u00fang. Tuy nhi\u00ean, Putnam c\u0169ng ph\u00ea ph\u00e1n r\u1eb1ng Dewey \u00edt nh\u1ea1y c\u1ea3m (sensitive) h\u01a1n James \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi gi\u1edbi h\u1ea1n c\u1ee7a tr\u00ed th\u00f4ng minh, ch\u1ec9 v\u00ec Dewey b\u1ecb chi ph\u1ed1i b\u1edfi nguy\u00ean l\u00fd nh\u1ecb nguy\u00ean v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u t\u1ed1t c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi (dualistic conception of human goods). Theo \u0111\u00f3, Dewey cho r\u1eb1ng ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 hai lo\u1ea1i l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c cho \u0111\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng con ng\u01b0\u1eddi: l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c th\u1ea9m m\u1ef9 (aesthetic dimension) v\u00e0 l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i (social dimension). Dewey cho r\u1eb1ng l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 ph\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ea5u cho m\u1ed9t th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi \u0111\u1eb9p \u0111\u1ebd h\u01a1n, m\u1ed9t x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i t\u1ed1t l\u00e0nh h\u01a1n, v\u00e0 gi\u1ea3i ph\u00f3ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ti\u1ec1m n\u0103ng con ng\u01b0\u1eddi; c\u00f2n t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 \u201ctr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m \u0111\u1ed9t h\u1ea3o\u201d (ND: consummatory experience, t\u1ee9c tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m c\u00f3 h\u1eadu qu\u1ea3 t\u1ed1t nh\u1edd v\u00e0o t\u00ecnh c\u1edd hay h\u1ee9ng kh\u1edfi, kh\u00f4ng qua ti\u1ebfn tr\u00ecnh th\u1eed nghi\u1ec7m khoa h\u1ecdc nh\u01b0 CNTN ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng) \u0111\u1ec1u thu\u1ed9c l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c th\u1ea9m m\u1ef9. Dewey ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u1ec3 x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng m\u1ed9t x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i t\u1ed1t \u0111\u1eb9p h\u01a1n, ch\u00fang ta c\u1ea7n c\u00f3 tr\u00ed th\u00f4ng minh \u0111\u1ec3 th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n, kh\u00f4ng nh\u1ea5t thi\u1ebft ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 tr\u00ed th\u00f4ng m\u00ecnh c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c chuy\u00ean gia, b\u1edfi l\u1ebd h\u1ecd l\u00e0 gi\u1edbi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u01b0u \u0111\u00e3i s\u1ebd kh\u00f4ng v\u00ec \u0111\u1ea1i ch\u00fang, m\u00e0 l\u00e0 tr\u00ed th\u00f4ng minh c\u1ee7a m\u1ecdi con ng\u01b0\u1eddi. Tr\u00ed th\u00f4ng minh n\u00e0y c\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u00e0 nh\u1edd gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c.<\/p>\n

V\u1ec1 ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c, Putnam nh\u1eafc nh\u1edf r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi hi\u1ec7n tr\u1ea1ng, Dewey kh\u00f4ng c\u00f2n l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi t\u1ef1 bi\u1ec7n (apologist), m\u00e0 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t k\u1ebb c\u1ef1c \u0111oan. \u0110\u1ec3 l\u00e0m cho x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i t\u1ed1t \u0111\u1eb9p h\u01a1n, n\u1ebfu Marx ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng \u201cc\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng\u201d, th\u00ec Dewey ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u1ea3i g\u1ea5p r\u00fat thay \u0111\u1ed5i \u201cgi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c\u201d. \u00d4ng nhi\u1ec1u l\u1ea7n nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh ph\u1ea3i xem \u201cgi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c\u201d l\u00e0 nhu c\u1ea7u kh\u1ea9n thi\u1ebft, ph\u1ea3i c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t n\u1ec1n gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c nh\u1eb1m \u0111\u00e0o t\u1ea1o con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, nam c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 n\u1eef, bi\u1ebft c\u00e1ch h\u1ecdc h\u1ecfi v\u00e0 t\u01b0 duy c\u00f3 ph\u00ea ph\u00e1n. Theo Dewey, n\u1ec1n gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c v\u00e0 n\u1ec1n d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 ph\u1ea3i ti\u1ebfn h\u00e0nh t\u1eeb d\u01b0\u1edbi \u0111i l\u00ean. Theo Putnam, Dewey \u0111\u00e3 t\u1eebng vi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng an l\u1ea1c x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 t\u0103ng ti\u1ebfn nh\u1edd ph\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u00e1ch chi\u00eau m\u1ed9 v\u00e0 qui t\u1ee5 s\u1ef1 quan t\u00e2m t\u00edch c\u1ef1c v\u00e0 n\u0103ng l\u1ef1c sinh \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1ebd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u01b0\u1edfng l\u1ee3i v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1ea3i thi\u1ec7n. V\u1ec1 ph\u1ea7n m\u00ecnh, Putnam ngh\u0129 r\u1eb1ng s\u1ef1 cam k\u1ebft nghi\u00eam t\u00fac v\u1edbi d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111o l\u01b0\u1eddng v\u00e0 \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 qua s\u1ef1 cam k\u1ebft nghi\u00eam t\u00fac v\u1edbi gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c, v\u00e0 \u00f4ng ti\u1ebft l\u1ed9 r\u1eb1ng \u00f4ng c\u1ea3m th\u1ea5y x\u1ea5u h\u1ed5 v\u1ec1 n\u1ec1n d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 (Hoa K\u1ef3) v\u00e0o cu\u1ed1i th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 20. Ch\u00fang ta h\u1eb3n kh\u00f4ng qu\u00ean r\u1eb1ng Putnam v\u00e0 Rorty \u0111\u1ec1u tr\u01b0\u1edfng th\u00e0nh trong gia \u0111\u00ecnh t\u1ea3 khuynh, v\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 t\u1eebng ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng r\u1ea5t t\u00edch c\u1ef1c trong phong tr\u00e0o sinh vi\u00ean M\u1ef9 ch\u1ed1ng Chi\u1ebfn Tranh Vi\u1ec7t Nam, v\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 thay \u0111\u1ed5i quan \u0111i\u1ec3m ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb \u00edt nhi\u1ec1u v\u1ec1 sau n\u00e0y. C\u1ea3 hai \u0111\u1ec1u \u0111\u00e3 qua \u0111\u1eddi. RIP
\n\u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi vai tr\u00f2 c\u1ee7a d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7, Putnam trong m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c ph\u1ecfng v\u1ea5n cho bi\u1ebft l\u00e0 \u00f4ng tin ch\u1eafc r\u1eb1ng ngo\u00e0i gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng di\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c \u2013t\u1ee9c thu\u1ed9c v\u1ec1 l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb\u2013 d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 c\u00f2n c\u00f3 gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng di\u1ec7n nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u, nh\u01b0 l\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 d\u1eabn d\u01b0\u1edbi ti\u00eau \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1ee7a b\u00e0i vi\u1ebft n\u00e0y. \u00d4ng c\u00f2n nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh r\u1eb1ng ph\u1ee7 nh\u1eadn d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 l\u00e0 ph\u1ee7 nh\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng \u00fd ki\u1ebfn c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i qua th\u1ef1c ngh\u00ec\u1ec7m, v\u00e0 b\u1ea5y l\u00e2u nay, ch\u00fang ta \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ee7 kinh nghi\u1ec7m hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec s\u1ebd x\u1ea3y ra khi ch\u00fang ta n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7n qua th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m hay th\u1eed nghi\u1ec7m.<\/p>\n

K\u1ebft Lu\u1eadn<\/strong><\/span><\/h1>\n

Tr\u00ean \u0111\u00e2y, T\u00e2n CNTD \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gi\u1edbi thi\u1ec7u ch\u1ec9 qua hai h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 Rorty v\u00e0 Putnam, c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 r\u1ea5t \u00edt quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd trong m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c h\u1ea1n ch\u1ebf m\u00e0 th\u00f4i. C\u0169ng nh\u01b0 \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi CNTD c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n, ch\u00fang ta bi\u1ebft ngo\u00e0i h\u1ecd ra, c\u00f2n c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u nh\u00e0 t\u00e2n th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng kh\u00e1c n\u1eefa. N\u00f3i chung, CNTD, c\u1ed5 v\u00e0 t\u00e2n, c\u00f2n \u0111ang \u1edf ti\u1ebfn tr\u00ecnh nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u, s\u1eeda sai v\u00e0 b\u1ed5 sung \u0111\u1ec3 ho\u00e0n ch\u1ec9nh h\u1ea7u \u0111\u00e1p \u1ee9ng nhu c\u1ea7u tri th\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng \u0111\u1ec3 ph\u1ee5c v\u1ee5 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, nh\u1ea5t con ng\u01b0\u1eddi v\u1edbi t\u01b0 c\u00e1ch l\u00e0 th\u00e0nh vi\u00ean trong c\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng v\u00e0 x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i r\u00f4ng l\u1edbn h\u01a1n, nh\u01b0 \u01b0\u1edbc mu\u1ed1n c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi t\u1ea1o l\u1eadp v\u00e0 t\u00e1i sinh n\u00f3.
\nNg\u01b0\u1eddi vi\u1ebft v\u1ed1n kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u00e0o t\u1ea1o trong l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb h\u1ecdc, do \u0111\u00f3 b\u00e0i vi\u1ebft n\u00e0y c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 b\u00e0i vi\u1ebft tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e2y (\u201cT\u00ecm Hi\u1ec3u Ch\u1ee7 Ngh\u0129a Th\u1ef1c D\u1ee5ng c\u1ee7a Hoa K\u1ef3\u201d) ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng gi\u1edbi thi\u1ec7u ng\u1eafn ng\u1ee7i r\u1eddi r\u1ea1c, trong khi CNTD l\u1ea1i bao tr\u00f9m qu\u00e1 nhi\u1ec1u ph\u1ea1m tr\u00f9 r\u1ed9ng l\u1edbn, ch\u01b0a c\u00f3 quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch n\u00e0o t\u00f3m l\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7. Tuy nhi\u00ean, ng\u01b0\u1eddi vi\u1ebft v\u1eabn c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t hy v\u1ecdng. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 t\u1eeb nh\u1eefng g\u1ee3i \u00fd n\u00e0y, ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 s\u1ebd th\u1ea5y xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n nhi\u1ec1u nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u kh\u00e1c, \u0111\u0103c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u chi ti\u1ebft nh\u1eb1m v\u1eadn d\u1ee5ng m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch ch\u1ecdn l\u1ecdc CNTD v\u00e0o ho\u00e0n c\u1ea3nh Vi\u1ec7t Nam trong nhi\u1ec1u l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t trong c\u00e1c l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb, ngo\u1ea1i giao v\u00e0 gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c, \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ec1 xu\u1ea5t nh\u1eefng c\u1ea3i t\u1ed5 hi\u1ec7n tr\u1ea1ng m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch th\u00edch h\u1ee3p nh\u1eb1m gi\u00fap cho qu\u1ed1c gia \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u1ed5n \u0111\u1ecbnh v\u00e0 c\u01b0\u1eddng th\u1ecbnh h\u01a1n, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 cho x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c an l\u1ea1c v\u00e0 nh\u00e2n b\u1ea3n l\u00e2u d\u00e0i h\u01a1n.<\/p>\n

L\u00ea V\u0103n B\u1ec9nh<\/span><\/h3>\n

S\u00e1ch \u0110\u1ec1 Ngh\u1ecb \u0110\u1ecdc Th\u00eam v\u1ec1 T\u00e2n Ch\u1ee7 Ngh\u0129a Th\u1ef1c D\u1ee5ng<\/em><\/strong>
\nEvidence and Inquiry: A Pragmatist Reconstruction of Epistemology (TG Susan Haack, NXB Prometheus Books, second expanded edition, 2009)
\nPragmatism: A Contemporary Reader (H\u0110 Russel B. Goodman, NXB Routledge, 1995)
\nReading Rorty: Critical Responses to Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (H\u0110 Alan R. Malachowski, NXB Basil Blackwell, 1990)
\nPragmatism and Social Hope: Deepening Democracy in Global Contexts (TG Judith M. Green, NXB Columbia University Press, 2009)
\nThe Cambridge Companion to Pragmatism (H\u0110 Alan Malachowski, NXB Cambridge University Press, 2013)<\/p>\n

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Bi\u00ean kh\u1ea3o c\u1ee7a L\u00ea V\u0103n B\u1ec9nh v\u1ec1 t\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng M\u1ef9: t\u1eeb Peirce, James, Dewey \u0111\u1ebfn Rorty v\u00e0 Putnam, v\u00e0 \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb v\u1eeba \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c v\u1eeba nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c cho ho\u00e0n c\u1ea3nh Vi\u1ec7t Nam.<\/p>","protected":false},"author":4,"featured_media":2205,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"_gspb_post_css":"","footnotes":""},"categories":[103,85],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-2202","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-deep-dives","category-current-issue"],"blocksy_meta":{"styles_descriptor":{"styles":{"desktop":"","tablet":"","mobile":""},"google_fonts":[],"version":7}},"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2202","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=2202"}],"version-history":[{"count":5,"href":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2202\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2309,"href":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2202\/revisions\/2309"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/2205"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=2202"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=2202"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=2202"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}