{"id":2076,"date":"2026-06-18T22:08:46","date_gmt":"2026-06-18T22:08:46","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/?p=2076"},"modified":"2026-06-18T22:08:46","modified_gmt":"2026-06-18T22:08:46","slug":"tim-hieu-chu-nghia-thuc-dung-my","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/tim-hieu-chu-nghia-thuc-dung-my\/","title":{"rendered":"T\u00ecm Hi\u1ec3u Ch\u1ee7 Ngh\u0129a Th\u1ef1c D\u1ee5ng M\u1ef9"},"content":{"rendered":"

Ch\u00e2n l\u00fd l\u00e0 v\u0129nh c\u1eedu v\u00e0 tr\u01b0\u1eddng t\u1ed3n, nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f3 m\u00e0 ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn r\u1eb1ng khi n\u00e0o b\u1ea1n s\u1ebd c\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3.<\/em><\/p>\n

(Truth is eternal and enduring, but it is hard to be sure when you have it. \u00a0\u2014 Richard Rorty)\u00a0\u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

Nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi trong ch\u00fang ta th\u01b0\u1eddng n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi M\u1ef9 \u2014 ti\u1ebfng d\u00f9ng chung cho c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n, ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb gia, \u0111\u1ecbnh ch\u1ebf, ch\u00ednh ph\u1ee7 \u2013theo \u201cch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng\u201d (pragmatism).\u00a0 Khi t\u1ecf \u00fd ch\u00ea bai, th\u00ec ph\u00ea ph\u00e1n n\u00e0y c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi M\u1ef9 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t l\u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng, h\u1ec5 th\u1ea5y \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec c\u00f3 l\u1ee3i cho m\u00ecnh th\u00ec l\u00e0m, qu\u00ean c\u1ea3 m\u1ee5c ti\u00eau m\u00e0 m\u00ecnh mu\u1ed1n theo \u0111u\u1ed5i t\u1eeb ban \u0111\u1ea7u. Khi ng\u1ee3i khen, th\u00ec ph\u00ea ph\u00e1n n\u00e0y h\u00e0m \u00fd l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi M\u1ef9 kh\u00f4ng c\u00e2u n\u1ec7, kh\u00f4ng c\u1ee9ng nh\u1eafc tu\u00e2n theo nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc, m\u00e0 tr\u00e1i l\u1ea1i bi\u1ebft linh \u0111\u1ed9ng theo t\u00ecnh th\u1ebf, s\u1eb5n s\u00e0ng thay \u0111\u1ed5i ph\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u00e1ch h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng l\u1ed1i hay ch\u00ednh s\u00e1ch.\u00a0 S\u1eed d\u1ee5ng c\u1ee5m t\u1eeb \u201cch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng\u201d v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng h\u00e0m \u00fd n\u00e0y thi\u1ebft ngh\u0129 kh\u00f4ng ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c, n\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng n\u00f3i l\u00e0 l\u1ea1m d\u1ee5ng ch\u1eef ngh\u0129a, b\u1edfi l\u1ebd h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng theo cung c\u00e1ch \u0111\u1ed5i t\u1edbi \u0111\u1ed5i lui th\u00ec kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 theo m\u1ed9t \u201cch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a\u201d n\u00e0o c\u1ea3! \u00a0Thi\u1ebft ngh\u0129 n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi M\u1ef9 \u201cth\u1ef1c t\u1ebf\u201d, \u201cth\u1ef1c ti\u1ec5n\u201d (practical) th\u00ec c\u00f3 l\u1ebd \u0111\u00fang h\u01a1n.<\/p>\n

Kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng \u00edt ng\u01b0\u1eddi Vi\u1ec7t ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng hi\u1ec3u v\u1ec1 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng, m\u00e0 ngay c\u1ea3 nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi M\u1ef9 c\u00f3 h\u1ecdc c\u0169ng kh\u00e1 m\u01a1 h\u1ed3 v\u1ec1 n\u00f3. Th\u1eadt v\u1eady, \u0111\u1ea7u n\u0103m 2012, \u0111\u00e0i ph\u00e1t thanh National Public Radio \u1edf th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 New York (WNYC) t\u01b0\u1eddng thu\u1eadt r\u1eb1ng 3 ch\u1eef pragmatic\/pragmatism\/pragmatist \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u01b0 d\u00e2n m\u1ea1ng t\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm nhi\u1ec1u nh\u1ea5t, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00e1c ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ti\u1ec7n truy\u1ec1n th\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ea1i ch\u00fang d\u00f9ng nhi\u1ec1u nh\u1ea5t v\u00e0o n\u0103m 2011 sau khi T\u1ed5ng Th\u1ed1ng Obama tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 r\u1eb1ng \u00f4ng v\u00e0 l\u1ecbch tr\u00ecnh h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng t\u1eeb khi v\u1eadn \u0111\u1ed9ng tranh c\u1eed \u0111\u1ebfn l\u00fac b\u1ea5y gi\u1edd v\u1eabn nh\u1ea5t qu\u00e1n, ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 \u201cpragmatic\u201d v\u00e0 \u201cpragmatist.\u201d\u00a0 (Pragmatism and American Experience: An Introduction, TG Joan Richardson, NXB Cambridge, 2014, tr.1-2)<\/p>\n

Ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng th\u1ef1c ra \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ng\u01b0\u1eddi M\u1ef9 v\u00e0 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi c\u00f4ng nh\u1eadn l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t tr\u00e0o l\u01b0u tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, ra \u0111\u1eddi tr\u00ean \u0111\u1ea5t M\u1ef9 t\u1eeb h\u01a1n m\u1ed9t tr\u0103m n\u0103m nay.\u00a0 N\u00f3 c\u00e0ng ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng ph\u1ed5 c\u1eadp trong \u0111\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 trong c\u00e1c l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c, ph\u00e1p lu\u1eadt, ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb, ngo\u1ea1i giao vv. Hoa K\u1ef3.\u00a0 Nhi\u1ec1u nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi \u0111\u00e3 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u phong tr\u00e0o tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc m\u1edbi n\u00e0y m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch nghi\u00eam t\u00fac, coi \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ea3n ph\u1ea9m tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 c\u1ee7a n\u01b0\u1edbc M\u1ef9 \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p v\u00e0o kho t\u00e0ng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi.<\/p>\n

Tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi gi\u1edbi thi\u1ec7u n\u1ed9i dung c\u1ee7a ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng, thi\u1ebft ngh\u0129 n\u00ean \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp s\u01a1 l\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u1ec1 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ec3 t\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3 ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 nh\u1eadn ra nh\u1eefng kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 \u201cm\u1edbi\u201d c\u1ee7a phong tr\u00e0o tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc n\u00e0y.<\/p>\n

S\u01a1 L\u01b0\u1ee3c V\u1ec1 Tri\u1ebft H\u1ecdc<\/span><\/h2>\n

Tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc l\u00e0 g\u00ec? Th\u1eadt ra ch\u01b0a c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a n\u00e0o v\u1ec1 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng g\u00e2y tranh c\u1ea3i. Xu\u1ea5t x\u1ee9 t\u1eeb ti\u1ebfng Hy L\u1ea1p (philosophia), tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 \u201cl\u00f2ng y\u00eau th\u01b0\u01a1ng tri th\u1ee9c hay s\u1ef1 kh\u00f4n ngoan\u201d (love of knowledge or wisdom), m\u00e0 m\u1ee5c ti\u00eau l\u00e0 nh\u1eb1m nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u \u0111\u1ec3 t\u00ecm hi\u1ec3u c\u00e1c ph\u1ea1m tr\u00f9 \u0111\u1eb7c tr\u01b0ng t\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t v\u00e0 tr\u1eebu t\u01b0\u1ee3ng nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi (s\u1ef1 s\u1ed1ng, ch\u1ebft, linh h\u1ed3n, th\u1ea7n linh, th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf, vv.) v\u00e0 c\u00e1c ph\u1ea1m tr\u00f9 gi\u00fap cho con ng\u01b0\u1eddi suy ngh\u0129 (tr\u00ed \u00f3c, v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t, ch\u00e2n l\u00fd, vv.) Theo nhi\u1ec1u nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u, th\u00ec tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc \u0110\u00f4ng ph\u01b0\u01a1ng, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t Trung Hoa v\u00e0 \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9, c\u00f3 tr\u01b0\u1edbc tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc T\u00e2y ph\u01b0\u01a1ng r\u1ea5t l\u00e2u, nh\u01b0ng ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu nghi\u00eang v\u1ec1 t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o, t\u1ee9c thu\u1ed9c lo\u1ea1i ph\u1ea1m tr\u00f9 tr\u01b0\u1edbc, h\u01a1n l\u00e0 lo\u1ea1i ph\u1ea1m tr\u00f9 sau. Tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc xu\u1ea5t ph\u00e1t t\u1eeb t\u00ednh t\u00f2 m\u00f2, hi\u1ebfu k\u1ef3 c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 l\u00f2ng ao \u01b0\u1edbc c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi mu\u1ed1n bi\u1ebft v\u00e0 hi\u1ec3u. C\u00e1ch \u0111\u00e2y v\u00e0i tr\u0103m n\u0103m v\u00ec ch\u01b0a c\u00f3 \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n giao l\u01b0u th\u01b0\u1eddng xuy\u00ean, cho n\u00ean tri\u1ebft T\u00e2y ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n m\u1ed9t c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp.\u00a0 Nh\u01b0ng d\u00f9 tri\u1ebft \u0110\u00f4ng hay tri\u1ebft T\u00e2y, tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc n\u00f3i chung \u0111\u1ec1u mang \u00edt nhi\u1ec1u t\u00ednh c\u00e1ch tra v\u1ea5n (inquiry); nh\u01b0ng khi tra v\u1ea5n, tri\u1ebft T\u00e2y th\u01b0\u1eddng theo m\u1ed9t di\u1ec5n tr\u00ecnh kh\u00e1 qui \u01b0\u1edbc, g\u1ed3m c\u00e1c giai \u0111o\u1ea1n nh\u01b0 ph\u00e2n t\u00edch, ph\u00ea b\u00ecnh, gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch v\u00e0 t\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t h\u00f3a \u0111\u1ec3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 gi\u00fap ti\u00ean li\u1ec7u nh\u1eefng t\u00ecnh hu\u1ed1ng t\u01b0\u01a1ng lai. Trong \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n n\u00e0y, nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc \u0111\u00f2i h\u1ecfi \u00edt nhi\u1ec1u th\u00f4ng minh, hay \u00edt nh\u1ea5t ng\u01b0\u1eddi nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 thi\u1ebfu nh\u1eefng ki\u1ebfn th\u1ee9c c\u0103n b\u1ea3n n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3.\u00a0 Tr\u01b0\u1edbc n\u0103m 1975, t\u1ea1i Mi\u1ec1n Nam Vi\u1ec7t Nam, h\u1ecdc sinh n\u0103m cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng c\u1ee7a ch\u01b0\u01a1ng tr\u00ecnh trung h\u1ecdc ph\u1ea3i h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 thi trong k\u1ef3 thi t\u1ed1t nghi\u1ec7p T\u00fa T\u00e0i II hai m\u00f4n lu\u1eadn l\u00fd h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c h\u1ecdc; ri\u00eang h\u1ecdc sinh ban v\u0103n ch\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u00f2n ph\u1ea3i th\u00eam m\u00f4n t\u00e2m l\u00fd h\u1ecdc.\u00a0 C\u00e1c ki\u1ebfn th\u1ee9c nh\u1eadp m\u00f4n n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng nh\u1eefng gi\u00fap h\u1ecd t\u01b0 duy v\u00e0 hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft m\u1ed9t t\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi tr\u1eebu t\u01b0\u1ee3ng v\u1eeba n\u00f3i, m\u00e0 c\u00f2n h\u01b0\u1edbng d\u1eabn v\u00e0 th\u00fac \u0111\u1ea9y h\u1ecd tra v\u1ea5n v\u1ec1 nhi\u1ec1u ph\u1ea1m tr\u00f9 m\u00e0 sau n\u00e0y khi ra \u0111\u1eddi h\u1ecd s\u1ebd c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1 \u0111\u1ed1i ph\u00f3.<\/p>\n

Tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc nh\u01b0 n\u00f3i tr\u00ean nh\u1eb1m tra v\u1ea5n nh\u1eefng ph\u1ea1m tr\u00f9 m\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u quan t\u00e2m. Nh\u01b0ng tr\u00ean \u0111\u1eddi n\u00e0y, c\u00f3 bi\u1ebft bao v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 \u0111\u00e1ng quan t\u00e2m! Theo truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng, tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc chia ra 5 ng\u00e0nh ch\u00ednh:<\/p>\n

\u2013\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc (metaphysics) nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u1ec1 b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u0103n b\u1ea3n c\u1ee7a hi\u1ec7n th\u1ef1c v\u00e0 hi\u1ec7n h\u1eefu. Chia ra hai chi nh\u00e1nh: hi\u1ec7n th\u1ec3 h\u1ecdc (ontology, nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u hi\u1ec7n th\u1ec3 \u2014 t\u1ee9c \u201cbeing\u201d) v\u00e0 v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 h\u1ecdc (cosmology, nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u1ec1 ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 qua t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o, truy\u1ec1n thuy\u1ebft v\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc);<\/p>\n

\u2013\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Tri th\u1ee9c h\u1ecdc (epistemology) nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u1ec1 b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t, c\u0103n b\u1ea3n v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a tri th\u1ee9c (knowledge), \u0111\u1ec3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 gi\u00fap con ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 ra ch\u00e2n l\u00fd\/\u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00fang\/ \u0111i\u1ec1u th\u1ef1c (truth \u2013trong b\u00e0i n\u00e0y trong h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p, c\u00e1c t\u1eeb ch\u00e2n l\u00fd\/\u0111\u00fang\/th\u1ef1c c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 d\u00f9ng thay cho nhau v\u1edbi \u00fd nh\u0129a t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1) t\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm m\u1ed1i quan h\u1ec7 gi\u1eefa tri th\u1ee9c v\u00e0 ni\u1ec1m tin;<\/p>\n

\u2013\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Lu\u1eadn l\u00fd h\u1ecdc (logic) nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc v\u00e0 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p l\u00fd lu\u1eadn, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 gi\u00fap ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t gi\u1eefa ch\u00ednh bi\u1ec7n v\u00e0 ng\u1ee5y bi\u1ec7n;<\/p>\n

\u2013\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u0110\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c h\u1ecdc (ethics) nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u1ec1 c\u00e1ch c\u01b0 x\u1eed, b\u1ea3n t\u00ednh v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi;<\/p>\n

\u2013\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Th\u1ea9m m\u1ef9 h\u1ecdc (aesthetics) nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt v\u00e0 c\u00e1i \u0111\u1eb9p; c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng, c\u1ea3m nh\u1eadn v\u00e0 th\u00e1i \u0111\u1ed9 khi th\u1ea5y, nghe, \u0111\u1ecdc v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u1eb9p \u0111\u1ebd.<\/p>\n

Ng\u00e0y nay ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta c\u00f2n k\u1ec3 th\u00eam tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc v\u1ec1 ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef (philosophy of language), xem n\u00f3 l\u00e0 quan tr\u1ecdng v\u1edbi l\u00fd do l\u00e0 m\u1ecdi tranh c\u1ea3i tri\u1ebft l\u00fd \u0111\u1ec1u t\u1eeb ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef m\u00e0 ra. C\u00e2u h\u1ecfi ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu \u201cNg\u00f4n ng\u1eef l\u00e0 g\u00ec?\u201d Ngo\u00e0i ra, m\u1ed7i ng\u00e0nh h\u1ecdc nh\u01b0 khoa h\u1ecdc, t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o, ph\u00e1p lu\u1eadt \u0111\u1ec1u c\u00f3 tri\u1ebft l\u00fd \u201cri\u00eang\u201d c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh, m\u00e0 ch\u1ed7 d\u1ef1a ch\u00ednh v\u1eabn l\u00e0 c\u00e1c ng\u00e0nh tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc k\u1ec3 tr\u00ean.<\/p>\n

C\u00f3 th\u1ec3 n\u00f3i m\u1ed7i ng\u01b0\u1eddi trong ch\u00fang ta h\u1eb1ng ng\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec1u ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ea7u v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi ho\u1eb7c l\u1edbn ho\u1eb7c nh\u1ecf mang \u00edt nhi\u1ec1u t\u00ednh c\u00e1ch tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc: V\u0169 tr\u1ee5 t\u1eeb \u0111\u00e2u sinh ra? T\u00f4i l\u00e0 ai? Cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e1ng s\u1ed1ng hay kh\u00f4ng?\u00a0 Sau khi ch\u1ebft linh h\u1ed3n \u0111i v\u1ec1 \u0111\u00e2u? Tu\u00e2n th\u01b0\u1ee3ng l\u1ec7nh \u0111\u1ec3 gi\u1ebft ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u00e0 t\u00f4i bi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng l\u00e0m nh\u01b0 v\u1eady l\u00e0 sai, t\u00f4i s\u1ebd b\u1ecb t\u1ed9i hay kh\u00f4ng? B\u1ea1n d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o \u0111\u00e2u m\u00e0 n\u00f3i \u00f4ng ta \u0111\u00fang hay sai? Ch\u1ecb d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o \u0111\u00e2u m\u00e0 khen b\u1ee9c tranh n\u00e0y \u0111\u1eb9p ho\u1eb7c x\u1ea5u, quy\u1ec3n ti\u1ec3u thuy\u1ebft n\u00e0y hay h\u01a1\u1eb7c d\u1edf? Ngay c\u1ea3 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng r\u1eb1ng t\u00ecm hi\u1ec3u tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc ch\u1ec9 l\u00e3ng ph\u00ed th\u00ec gi\u1edd, h\u00e3y c\u1ee9 t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean m\u00e0 s\u1ed1ng, th\u00ec ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ea5y c\u0169ng cho th\u1ea5y c\u00e1i tri\u1ebft l\u00fd s\u1ed1ng c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh!<\/p>\n

T\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 n\u00f3i nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc gi\u00fap l\u00e0m s\u00e1ng t\u1ecf nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta vi\u1ebft l\u00e0 \u0111\u00fang hay sai, \u0111\u00e1ng tin hay n\u00ean ng\u1edd v\u1ef1c; c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 gi\u00fap hi\u1ec3u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u00fd do, ho\u00e0n c\u1ea3nh c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t giai \u0111o\u1ea1n l\u1ecbch s\u1eed n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u1ec3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ph\u00ea ph\u00e1n cho c\u00f4ng b\u1eb1ng h\u01a1n, c\u01b0 x\u1eed cho v\u0103n minh h\u01a1n vv.<\/p>\n

X\u00e3 h\u1ed9i lo\u00e0i ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng tr\u00ean nh\u1eefng t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc. Nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ecbnh ch\u1ebf nh\u01b0 ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n, lu\u1eadt ph\u00e1p, t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o, h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng, h\u00f4n nh\u00e2n, gia \u0111\u00ecnh, t\u1ed5 ch\u1ee9c h\u00e0nh ch\u00e1nh, kinh t\u1ebf, th\u01b0\u01a1ng m\u1ea1i, vv. th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp theo nh\u1eefng t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc nh\u1ea5t qu\u00e1n.\u00a0 Thi\u1ebfu t\u00ednh nh\u1ea5t qu\u00e1n n\u00e0y, hay n\u1ebfu g\u00e2y t\u1ea1o nh\u1eefng chuy\u1ec3n bi\u1ebfn th\u00f4 b\u1ea1o v\u1ee5ng v\u1ec1 th\u00ec d\u1ec5 \u0111\u01b0a \u0111\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ed5 v\u1ee1.\u00a0 \u0110\u1ed5 v\u1ee1 b\u1edfi v\u00ec ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u1ea7m quy\u1ec1n tin r\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng g\u00ec m\u00ecnh ra l\u1ec7nh l\u00e0 t\u1ed1i quan tr\u1ecdng, l\u00e0 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd trong khi thu\u1ed9c c\u1ea5p v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea1i ch\u00fang l\u1ea1i suy ngh\u0129 ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n tr\u00e1i ng\u01b0\u1ee3c.<\/p>\n

Ch\u1ee7 Ngh\u0129a Th\u1ef1c D\u1ee5ng<\/span><\/h2>\n

M\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ph\u00e1p, Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859), khi sang Hoa K\u1ef3 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u1ec1 ch\u1ebf \u0111\u1ed9 ng\u1ee5c t\u00f9 v\u00e0o th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 18, t\u1ecf ra r\u1ea5t h\u1ee9ng kh\u1edfi v\u1ec1 sinh ho\u1ea1t ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb v\u00e0 sinh ho\u1ea1t d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7, v\u0103n h\u00f3a c\u1ee7a qu\u1ed1c gia non tr\u1ebb n\u00e0y, \u0111\u00e3 vi\u1ebft ra m\u1ed9t quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch d\u00e0y, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u1ecbch \u00edt nhi\u1ec1u l\u1ea7n sang ti\u1ebfng Anh v\u1edbi t\u1ef1a \u0111\u1ec1 \u201cDemocracy in America\u201d, th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nhi\u1ec1u ch\u00ednh kh\u00e1ch M\u1ef9 tr\u00edch d\u1eabn, \u0111\u00e3 th\u1ea5y s\u1ef1 thi\u1ebfu v\u1eafng \u0111\u00e1ng ng\u1ea1c nhi\u00ean c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc \u1edf qu\u1ed1c gia \u0111\u1ea7y sinh \u0111\u1ed9ng n\u00e0y.\u00a0 \u00d4ng vi\u1ebft: \u201cT\u00f4i ngh\u0129 r\u1eb1ng kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t qu\u1ed1c gia n\u00e0o tr\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi v\u0103n minh n\u00e0y l\u1ea1i \u00edt \u0111\u1ec3 \u00fd t\u1edbi tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc nh\u01b0 t\u1ea1i Hoa K\u1ef3. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi M\u1ef9 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc ri\u00eang cho m\u00ecnh, v\u00e0 h\u1ecd kh\u00f4ng m\u1ea5y \u0111\u1ec3 \u00fd t\u1edbi nh\u1eefng tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i m\u00e0 theo \u0111\u00f3 ch\u00e2u \u00c2u b\u1ecb ph\u00e2n chia ra, nh\u1eefng c\u00e1i t\u00ean m\u00e0 h\u1ecd hi\u1ebfm khi bi\u1ebft \u0111\u1ebfn.\u201d<\/p>\n

N\u1ebfu Tocqueville c\u00f2n s\u1ed1ng th\u00eam m\u01b0\u01a1i n\u0103m n\u1eefa, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u00f4ng s\u1ebd ngh\u0129 kh\u00e1c. Th\u1eadt v\u1eady, t\u1eeb \u0111\u1ea7u th\u1eadp ni\u00ean 1860 tr\u1edf \u0111i, sinh ho\u1ea1t tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a gi\u1edbi tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c tr\u1ebb Hoa K\u1ef3 \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1edbm b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u.\u00a0 Phong tr\u00e0o tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng kh\u00f4ng ng\u1eebng ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n cho \u0111\u1ebfn nay, lan d\u1ea7n v\u00e0o nhi\u1ec1u l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c v\u0103n h\u1ecdc, ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt, gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c, ph\u00e1p l\u00fd, vv. N\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng nh\u1eefng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 h\u01b0\u1edfng \u1ee9ng n\u1ed3ng nhi\u1ec7t c\u1ee7a gi\u1edbi tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c Hoa K\u1ef3, m\u00e0 c\u00f2n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 ti\u1ebfp nh\u1eadn \u00edt d\u00e8 d\u1eb7t h\u01a1n, n\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng n\u00f3i kh\u1ea3 quan, c\u1ee7a gi\u1edbi tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c b\u00ean ngo\u00e0i nguy\u00ean x\u1ee9 c\u1ee7a n\u00f3.<\/p>\n

Tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi \u0111i v\u00e0o chi ti\u1ebft v\u1ec1 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng, xin \u0111\u01b0a ra d\u01b0\u1edbi \u0111\u00e2y m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 \u0111\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a qua c\u00e1c t\u1ef1 \u0111i\u1ec3n kh\u00f4ng chuy\u00ean m\u00f4n, \u0111\u1ec3 xem ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta \u0111\u01b0a ra nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a c\u00f3 t\u00ednh c\u00e1ch \u0111\u1ea1i ch\u00fang v\u1ec1 tr\u00e0o l\u01b0u tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc m\u1edbi n\u00e0y nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf n\u00e0o.<\/p>\n

\u2013\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0Ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng hay m\u1ed9t khuynh h\u01b0\u1edbng trong tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, tr\u1eafc nghi\u1ec7m gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m qua c\u00e1c k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 th\u1ef1c ti\u1ec5n. (Webster\u2019s New World Dictionary of the American Language, NXB The World Publishing Company, 1968, tr. 1146).<\/p>\n

\u2013\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ch\u1ee7 thuy\u1ebft cho r\u1eb1ng \u00fd ngh\u0129 v\u00e0 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb khi mang l\u1ea1i h\u1ec7 qu\u1ea3, v\u00e0 r\u1eb1ng k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 l\u00e0 tr\u1eafc nghi\u1ec7m duy nh\u1ea5t v\u1ec1 gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb hay \u0111\u00fang c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t ni\u1ec1m tin c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi. (New Illustrated Webster\u2019s Dictionary of the English Language, NXB PMC Publishing Company, Inc., 1992, tr. 761)<\/p>\n

\u2013\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng: m\u1ed9t tri\u1ebft l\u00fd, l\u00fd gi\u1ea3i ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu b\u1edfi C.S. Pierce v\u00e0 Williams James, l\u01b0\u1ee3ng gi\u00e1 c\u00e1c x\u00e1c quy\u1ebft \u0111\u01a1n thu\u1ea7n b\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng h\u1ec7 qu\u1ea3 th\u1ef1c ti\u1ec5n, v\u00e0 li\u00ean h\u1ec7 \u0111\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng l\u1ee3i \u00edch c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi. (The Oxford Encyclopedia English Dictionary, NXB OUP, 1996, tr. 1137)<\/p>\n

\u2013\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng: 1. (Tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc): m\u1ed9t phong tr\u00e0o g\u1ed3m nh\u1eefng l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft \u0111a d\u1ea1ng nh\u01b0ng k\u1ebft h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi nhau, kh\u1edfi \u0111\u1ea7u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c khai tri\u1ec3n b\u1edfi Charles S. Pierce v\u00e0 William James v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t qua ch\u1ee7 thuy\u1ebft cho r\u1eb1ng \u00fd ngh\u0129a c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng hay c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t ti\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ec1 (proposition) n\u1eb1m \u1edf nh\u1eefng h\u1eadu qu\u1ea3 th\u1ef1c ti\u1ec5n c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 quan s\u00e1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c; 2. \u00a0m\u1ed9t ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p th\u1ef1c ti\u1ec3n, th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1\u00a0 \u0111\u1ec3 ti\u1ebfp c\u1eadn v\u00e0 \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 c\u00e1c t\u00ecnh hu\u1ed1ng v\u00e0 gi\u1ea3i quy\u1ebft c\u00e1c v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, NXB Houghton Mifflin Co., 2000, tr. 1378)<\/p>\n

\u2013\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng ngh\u0129 v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u00e1ch gi\u1ea3i quy\u1ebft c\u00e1c v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 theo ph\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u00e1ch th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m v\u00e0 c\u1ea3m t\u00ednh h\u01a1n l\u00e0 b\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u00e0 l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft c\u1ed1 \u0111\u1ecbnh (Oxford Advanced America Dictionary, NXB OUP, 2011, tr. 1146)<\/p>\n

T\u1eeb nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a t\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t qu\u00e1t n\u00e0y, li\u1ec7u ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0a ra k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng theo CNTD, m\u1ed9t ch\u1ee7 thuy\u1ebft (doctrine), hay m\u1ed9t \u00fd ngh\u0129, m\u1ed9t t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem l\u00e0 \u0111\u00fang v\u00e0 c\u00f3 \u00fd ngh\u0129a ch\u1ec9 khi n\u00e0o n\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0a \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ed9t h\u1ec7 qu\u1ea3 h\u1eefu \u00edch cho con ng\u01b0\u1eddi; c\u00f2n n\u1ebfu n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng \u0111em l\u1ea1i k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 nh\u01b0 mong mu\u1ed1n, th\u00ec n\u00f3 ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng th\u1ee9 v\u00f4 b\u1ed5? \u0110\u00e2y qu\u1ea3 m\u1ed9t c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi quan tr\u1ecdng \u0111\u00e1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u c\u1ea9n th\u1eadn tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi c\u00f3 c\u00e2u tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi. Ngo\u00e0i ra, CNTD c\u00f2n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t ph\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u00e1ch (method) \u0111em l\u1ea1i gi\u1ea3i ph\u00e1p cho c\u00e1c t\u00ecnh hu\u1ed1ng. T\u00ednh c\u00e1ch th\u1ef1c ti\u1ec5n c\u1ee7a hai y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 n\u00e0y \u2013hay c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 th\u00eam nh\u1eefng y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 kh\u00e1c n\u1eefa \u2014 gi\u00fap \u00edch g\u00ec cho cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng?<\/p>\n

***<\/p>\n

Tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi gi\u1edbi thi\u1ec7u CNTD v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u00e1t minh ra n\u00f3, thi\u1ebft ngh\u0129 n\u00ean \u0111\u01b0a ra \u00fd ki\u1ebfn d\u00e8 d\u1eb7t r\u1eb1ng CNTD ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 \u201cm\u1ed9t c\u00e1i t\u00ean m\u1edbi cho nh\u1eefng c\u00e1ch suy ngh\u0129 c\u0169\u201d (a new name for old ways of thinking) nh\u01b0 William James \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ec1 ngh\u1ecb.\u00a0 Theo CNTD, m\u1ed9t \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00ea ph\u00e1n qua c\u00e1ch th\u1ee9c ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a n\u00f3, h\u01a1n l\u00e0 qua d\u00e1ng v\u1ebb b\u1ec1 ngo\u00e0i hay qua ti\u1ebfng n\u00f3i ph\u00e1t ra.\u00a0 Ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p c\u1ee7a CNTD \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem l\u00e0 g\u1ea7n g\u0169i v\u1edbi ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p khoa h\u1ecdc; hay n\u00f3i r\u00f5 h\u01a1n l\u00e0 n\u00f3 toan t\u00ednh \u0111\u01b0a c\u00e1c ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p khoa h\u1ecdc v\u00e0o tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc.\u00a0 \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y khi\u1ebfn nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi xem CNTD l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc k\u1ef3 qu\u00e1i c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi M\u1ef9!<\/p>\n

Theo CNTD, ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 ph\u00ea ph\u00e1n r\u1eb1ng m\u1ed9t \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng l\u00e0 \u0111\u00fang hay sai ch\u1ec9 b\u1eb1ng \u0111\u01a1n thu\u1ea7n nh\u00ecn n\u00f3. N\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem l\u00e0 \u0111\u00fang v\u1edbi \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n l\u00e0 n\u00f3 ch\u1ee9ng t\u1ecf hi\u1ec7u qu\u1ea3 khi li\u00ean h\u1ec7 \u0111\u1ebfn qu\u00e1 kh\u1ee9 v\u00e0 t\u01b0\u01a1ng lai, v\u00e0 khi t\u1ed5 ch\u1ee9c c\u00e1c tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m hi\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i l\u00e0m th\u1ecfa m\u00e3n ch\u00fang ta.\u00a0 M\u1ed9t \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u00fang trong t\u00ecnh hu\u1ed1ng n\u00e0y, nh\u01b0ng l\u1ea1i sai trong ho\u00e0n c\u1ea3nh kh\u00e1c. \u00a0Ch\u1eb3ng h\u1ea1n, v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a m\u1eb7t tr\u1eddi v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng h\u00e0nh tinh l\u00e2n c\u1eadn, t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a nh\u00e0 thi\u00ean v\u0103n h\u1ecdc Ptolemy (100 -170) \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem l\u00e0 \u0111\u00fang trong m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi gian d\u00e0i h\u01a1n c\u1ea3 ngh\u00ecn n\u0103m tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi Copernicus (1473-1543) \u0111\u01b0a ra quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh.\u00a0 G\u1ea7n \u0111\u00e2y, d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed1i c\u1ee7a Newton, c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 thi\u00ean v\u0103n h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i, quan s\u00e1t th\u1ea5y s\u1ef1 chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng gi\u1ea3n d\u1ecb h\u01a1n nhi\u1ec1u so v\u1edbi c\u00e1c t\u00ednh to\u00e1n c\u1ee7a Copernicus.\u00a0 \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo CNTD, Ptolemy v\u00e0 Copernicus \u0111\u1ec1u \u0111\u00fang c\u1ea3, ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 c\u1ea3 hai l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ec1u \u0111\u00fang cho t\u1edbi khi ch\u00fang kh\u00f4ng c\u00f2n ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng hi\u1ec7u qu\u1ea3 n\u1eefa.<\/p>\n

C\u0169ng c\u1ea7n n\u00f3i th\u00eam: CNTD ch\u01b0a bao gi\u1edd long tr\u1ecdng tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 r\u1eb1ng m\u1ed9t \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1ebd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c coi l\u00e0 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd cho m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi khi \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng n\u00e0y gi\u00fap cho \u00f4ng ta \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 m\u00e0 \u00f4ng ta mu\u1ed1n.\u00a0 \u0110i\u1ec1u hoang t\u01b0\u1edfng k\u1ef3 v\u0129 n\u00e0y c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0m cho \u00f4ng ta qu\u00e1 t\u1ef1 tin v\u00e0 khi\u1ebfn \u00f4ng ta ra tay ch\u1ebf ng\u1ef1 k\u1ebb kh\u00e1c \u0111\u1ec3 nh\u1eb1m \u0111\u1ea1t m\u1ee5c ti\u00eau c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. Ch\u00ednh \u0111i\u1ec1u hoang t\u01b0\u1edfng n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 g\u00e2y ra th\u1ea3m h\u1ecda cho nhi\u1ec1u d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c tr\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi sau nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c b\u1ea7u c\u1eed gay go, hay sau nh\u1eefng chi\u1ebfn th\u1eafng b\u1ea5t ng\u1edd, hay sau nh\u1eefng v\u1ee5 \u0111\u1ea3o ch\u00ednh \u0111\u1ea9m m\u00e1u. L\u00fd do l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi chi\u1ebfn th\u1eafng xem s\u1ef1 th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng ban \u0111\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh l\u00e0 \u0111\u00fang v\u00e0 s\u1ebd m\u00e3i l\u00e0 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd.\u00a0 L\u1eddi tr\u00edch d\u1eabn c\u1ee7a Rorty d\u01b0\u1edbi t\u1ef1a \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1ee7a b\u00e0i n\u00e0y h\u00e0m \u00fd l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec m\u00e3i m\u00e3i \u0111\u00fang.<\/p>\n

Tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, nh\u01b0 \u0111\u00e3 n\u00f3i, chia ra l\u00e0m nhi\u1ec1u ng\u00e0nh. CNTD \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp \u0111\u1ebfn h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft nh\u1eefng ng\u00e0nh tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc \u0111\u00f3, m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n v\u00ec nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u00e1ng l\u1eadp \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u00e0o t\u1ea1o t\u1eeb nhi\u1ec1u ng\u00e0nh ngh\u1ec1 kh\u00e1c nhau; ph\u1ea7n kh\u00e1c h\u1ecd mu\u1ed1n \u0111\u01b0a ra nh\u1eefng ch\u1ee7 thuy\u1ebft kh\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed1i kh\u00e1ng v\u1edbi c\u00e1c ch\u1ee7 thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i c\u0169. N\u00f3i m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch t\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t, CNTD l\u00e0 k\u1ebft h\u1ee3p c\u1ee7a \u00edt nh\u1ea5t 3 l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft ch\u00ednh sau \u0111\u00e2y. Th\u1ee9 nh\u1ea5t, l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng (theory of mind), theo \u0111\u00f3, ni\u1ec1m tin l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ecbnh v\u00e0 \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng k\u1ebf ho\u1ea1ch h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng.\u00a0 Th\u1ee9 hai, l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 \u00fd ngh\u0129a (theory of meaning), theo \u0111\u00f3, c\u00e1c \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u00e0m s\u00e1ng t\u1ecf b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch cho th\u1ea5y m\u1ed1i quan h\u1ec7 c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang v\u1edbi h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng. Th\u1ee9 ba, l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd (theory of truth), theo \u0111\u00f3, nh\u1eefng ni\u1ec1m tin l\u00e0 \u0111\u00fang ch\u1ec9 khi ch\u00fang l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng h\u01b0\u1edbng d\u1eabn \u0111em l\u1ea1i k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 trong c\u00e1c ti\u00ean li\u1ec7u v\u00e0 h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng.\u00a0 Y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 xuy\u00ean su\u1ed1t trong ba ch\u1ee7 thuy\u1ebft n\u00e0y l\u00e0 h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng, ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i nh\u1eefng suy x\u00e9t c\u00f3 t\u00ednh c\u00e1ch l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft. (The Columbia History of Western Philosophy, hi\u1ec7u \u0111\u00ednh b\u1edfi Richard H. Popkin, NXB: MJF Books, n\u0103m 1999, tr. 592). H\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng (actions) c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng th\u00ed nghi\u1ec7m (experiments), hay nh\u1eefng tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m (experiences, t\u1ee9c nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u m\u00e0 t\u00e1c nh\u00e2n \u0111\u00e3 kinh qua, tr\u1ea3i qua \u2013 Xin ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t experiences v\u1edbi experience (uncountable noun) m\u00e0 ch\u00fang ta th\u01b0\u1eddng g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 kinh nghi\u1ec7m, t\u1ee9c nh\u1eefng k\u1ef9 n\u0103ng h\u1ecdc h\u1ecfi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c. CNTD cho r\u1eb1ng \u00fd ngh\u0129a v\u00e0 c\u00e1i \u0111\u00fang c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ecbnh \u0111o\u1ea1t b\u1edfi nh\u1eefng h\u1ec7 qu\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u00f3 qua th\u1ef1c h\u00e0nh v\u00e0 c\u01b0 x\u1eed (in practice and conduct). Do \u0111\u00f3, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 t\u00f3m t\u1eaft nh\u01b0 sau: C\u1ed1t l\u00f5i c\u1ee7a CNTD l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ni\u1ec1m tin (beliefs) kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 t\u00e1ch r\u1eddi kh\u1ecfi nh\u1eefng h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng (actions); m\u00e0 c\u00e1i \u0111\u00fang c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng ni\u1ec1m tin th\u00ec ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 qua h\u1ec7 qu\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng (consequences) n\u00e0y.<\/p>\n

D\u01b0\u1edbi \u0111\u00e2y, ch\u00fang ta s\u1ebd s\u01a1 l\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00ecm hi\u1ec3u v\u1ec1 ba nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean c\u1ee7a CNTD \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean c\u1ee7a Hoa K\u1ef3<\/p>\n

\u2013\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Charles Sanders Peirse<\/p>\n

\u2013\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Williams James<\/p>\n

\u2013\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 John Dewey<\/p>\n

Charles Sanders Peirce (1839 \u2013 1914)<\/strong><\/span><\/h2>\n

\"\"V\u00e0o Harvard University n\u0103m 16 tu\u1ed5i, Peirce (ph\u00e1t \u00e2m nh\u01b0 purse) h\u1ecdc ng\u00e0nh khoa h\u1ecdc th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m d\u01b0\u1edbi s\u1ef1 h\u01b0\u1edbng d\u1eabn c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi cha, m\u1ed9t gi\u00e1o s\u01b0 to\u00e1n v\u00e0 thi\u00ean v\u0103n h\u1ecdc n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng c\u1ee7a tr\u01b0\u1eddng th\u1eddi \u0111\u00f3. Sinh ho\u1ea1t th\u01b0\u1eddng xuy\u00ean ngo\u1ea1i kh\u00f3a v\u1edbi nh\u00f3m nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 The Metaphysical Club, trong \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 v\u00e0i ba h\u1ed9i vi\u00ean \u0111ang l\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc gia, lu\u1eadn b\u00e0n v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 si\u00eau h\u00ecnh v\u00e0 b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a ni\u1ec1m tin. T\u1ed1t nghi\u1ec7p 4 n\u0103m sau v\u1edbi b\u1eb1ng h\u00f3a h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 l\u00e0m vi\u1ec7c 30 n\u0103m li\u1ec1n cho United States Coastal and Geodesic Survey. Th\u1ec9nh tho\u1ea3ng Peirce tr\u1edf l\u1ea1i Harvard \u0111\u1ec3 di\u1ec5n thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 lu\u1eadn l\u00fd h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 l\u1ecbch s\u1eed c\u1ee7a khoa h\u1ecdc. N\u0103m 1891, \u00f4ng b\u1ecf c\u01a1 quan n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec3 d\u00f9ng to\u00e0n th\u1eddi gian nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u lu\u1eadn l\u00fd h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, v\u00e0 d\u1ef1 \u0111\u1ecbnh vi\u1ebft th\u00e0nh s\u00e1ch nh\u1eefng g\u00ec \u0111\u00e3 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u00e0 suy nghi\u1ec7m.\u00a0 T\u00fang thi\u1ebfu t\u00e0i ch\u00ednh, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e0nh vi\u1ebft b\u00e1o \u0111\u1ec3 s\u1ed1ng qua ng\u00e0y. Tr\u00f4ng gi\u00e0 nua h\u01a1n, l\u1eadp d\u1ecb (eccentric) h\u01a1n, d\u1ec5 n\u00f3ng gi\u1eadn, ch\u1ec9 th\u00edch s\u1ed1ng \u1ea9n d\u1eadt m\u1ed9t m\u00ecnh, kh\u00f4ng mu\u1ed1n quan h\u1ec7 v\u1edbi ai c\u1ea3. Th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c William James (s\u1ebd \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp sau) gi\u00fap \u0111\u1ee1 t\u00e0i ch\u00e1nh, gi\u1edbi thi\u1ec7u vi\u1ec7c l\u00e0m. Khi ch\u1ebft, \u00f4ng ch\u01b0a ra m\u1eaft \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ed9t quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch n\u00e0o.\u00a0 Tuy nhi\u00ean khi c\u00f2n s\u1ed1ng \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 vi\u1ebft h\u1eb1ng tr\u0103m b\u00e0i thuy\u1ebft tr\u00ecnh v\u00e0 b\u00e0i ph\u00ea b\u00ecnh tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc. C\u00e1c b\u1ea3n th\u1ea3o ch\u01b0a in \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Philosphical Department c\u1ee7a Harvard mua l\u1ea1i v\u00e0 in th\u00e0nh nhi\u1ec1u quy\u1ec3n v\u1edbi t\u00ean c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng.<\/p>\n

Peirce gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch s\u1ef1 ra \u0111\u1eddi c\u1ee7a CNTD nh\u01b0 sau: \u201cCh\u1eef ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e1t minh ra \u0111\u1ec3 di\u1ec5n t\u1ea3 m\u1ed9t nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc l\u00fd lu\u1eadn nh\u00e1t \u0111\u1ecbnh li\u00ean can \u0111\u1ebfn c\u1ea3 h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc nh\u01b0 \u0111\u00e3 loan b\u00e1o t\u1eeb \u0111\u1ea7u.\u00a0 Nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc n\u00e0y nh\u1eb1m cung c\u1ea5p m\u1ed9t ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p ph\u00e2n t\u00edch c\u00e1c \u00fd ni\u1ec7m (concepts).\u00a0 \u00dd ni\u1ec7m l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 \u1edf d\u1ea1ng th\u00f4ng th\u01b0\u1eddng, hay \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ea1o ra, l\u00e0 ph\u1ea7n h\u1ee3p l\u00fd c\u1ee7a n\u1ed9i dung m\u1ed9t t\u1eeb \u2026\u201d<\/p>\n

Pierce ti\u1ebft l\u1ed9 r\u1eb1ng cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng \u1edf ph\u00f2ng th\u00ed nghi\u1ec7m kh\u00f4ng ng\u0103n c\u1ea3n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ed1i quan t\u00e2m c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u00e1ch t\u01b0 duy c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, v\u00e0 \u00f4ng t\u00ecm \u0111\u1ecdc tri\u1ebft l\u00fd si\u00eau h\u00ecnh.\u00a0 \u00d4ng kh\u00f4ng tho\u1ea3 m\u00e3n v\u00ec nh\u1eefng l\u00fd lu\u1eadn r\u1eddi r\u1ea1c m\u00e0 \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 g\u1eb7p ph\u1ea3i.\u00a0 Do \u0111\u00f3 \u00f4ng mu\u1ed1n \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng \u00fd ni\u1ec7m g\u1eafn ch\u1eb7t v\u1edbi c\u00e1ch x\u1eed s\u1ef1 trong cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng. Theo \u00f4ng, r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng l\u00e0 m\u1ecdi \u0111i\u1ec1u mang l\u1ea1i t\u1eeb th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m \u0111\u1ec1u \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp \u0111\u1ebfn c\u00e1ch x\u1eed s\u1ef1 \u0111\u00f3; cho n\u00ean \u201cn\u1ebfu ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u00e0 s\u1ef1 x\u00e1c nh\u1eadn hay ph\u1ee7 nh\u1eadn c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u00e1m ch\u1ec9, th\u00ec ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta s\u1ebd c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7 v\u1ec1 \u00fd ni\u00eam.\u201d V\u00e0 \u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 mu\u1ed1n nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh n\u1ed9i dung n\u00e0y cho l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 \u00fd ni\u1ec7m m\u00e0 \u00f4ng \u0111\u1eb7t t\u00ean l\u00e0 pragmatism, d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean thu\u1eadt ng\u1eef pragmtisch c\u1ee7a Kant m\u00e0 \u00f4ng coi l\u00e0 di\u1ec5n t\u1ea3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ed1i li\u00ean h\u1ec7 v\u1edbi m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch nh\u00e2n b\u1ea3n.\u00a0 \u00d4ng kh\u00f4ng mu\u1ed1n g\u00ec h\u01a1n. Do \u0111\u00f3, \u00f4ng t\u1ecf ra kh\u00f4ng h\u00e0i l\u00f2ng khi bi\u1ebft James s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng thu\u1eadt ng\u1eef pragmatism c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u1ec9 \u201cch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c nghi\u00eam c\u1ef1c \u0111oan\u201d (\u201cradical impiricism\u201d) c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng ta, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c v\u00e0 b\u00e1o ch\u00ed \u0111\u00e3 di\u1ec5n gi\u1ea3i thu\u1eadt ng\u1eef n\u00e0y kh\u00e1c v\u1edbi ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh, \u00f4ng tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 h\u00f4n gi\u1ea3 bi\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ee9a con tinh th\u1ea7n n\u00e0y, v\u00e0 khai sinh l\u1ea1i cho n\u00f3 v\u1edbi c\u00e1i t\u00ean m\u1edbi pragmaticism, m\u00e0 \u00f4ng th\u1ea5y k\u1ef3 qu\u1eb7c nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng s\u1ee3 b\u1ecb b\u1eaft c\u00f3c.\u00a0 (Charles S. Pierce: Selected Writings:Values in a Universe of Chance, \u00a0H\u0110 Philip P. Wieser, NXB Dover Publications, 1958, tr180-202) Tuy nhi\u00ean ng\u00e0y nay, pragmatism \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn r\u1ed9ng r\u00e3i \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u1ec9 tr\u00e0o l\u01b0u tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc do Pierse khai s\u00e1ng, trong khi \u0111\u00f3 pragmaticism ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng h\u1ea1n ch\u1ebf trong ng\u00e0nh ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef h\u1ecdc (th\u00ed d\u1ee5 trong quy\u1ec3n \u201cPragmaticism: Theory and Application\u201d c\u1ee7a Ellyn Lucas Arwood).<\/p>\n

Pierse c\u00f2n \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t quan t\u00e2m \u0111\u1ebfn s\u1ef1 kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t gi\u1eefa ni\u1ec1m tin v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 ho\u00e0i nghi. \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi \u00f4ng \u201cs\u1ef1 ho\u00e0i nghi tr\u00ean l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft\u201d (paper doubt) c\u1ee7a Descartes kh\u00f4ng \u00edch l\u1ee3i g\u00ec; tr\u00e1i l\u1ea1i s\u1ef1 ho\u00e0i nghi th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1 (real doubt) \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1ee7ng c\u1ed1 sau nhi\u1ec1u tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m s\u1ebd l\u00e0m cho ch\u00fang ta ho\u00e3n l\u1ea1i nh\u1eefng ni\u1ec1m tin, t\u1ee9c nh\u1eefng g\u00ec m\u00e0 tho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ea7u ch\u00fang ta tin l\u00e0 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd\/\u0111\u00fang\/th\u1ef1c. Theo Peirce, nh\u1eefng ti\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ec1 trong tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc (proposition) \u2013t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ecbnh \u0111\u1ec1 (theorem) trong to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc\u2013 xu\u1ea5t ph\u00e1t t\u1eeb m\u1ed9t v\u00e0i ngh\u0129 suy s\u1eafp \u0111\u1eb7t th\u00f4ng minh (intellectual disposition) ch\u01b0a \u0111\u00e1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 ni\u1ec1m tin (belief); m\u00e0 ni\u1ec1m tin l\u00e0 do m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 bi\u1ec3u th\u1ecb v\u1ec1 th\u00f3i quen \u1ee9ng ph\u00f3 trong h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng (a behavioral habit manifest in action).\u00a0 Do \u0111\u00f3, khi \u201cs\u1ef1 ho\u00e0i nghi th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1\u201d \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1eb7t ra, th\u00ec th\u00e1i \u0111\u1ed9 th\u01b0\u1eddng c\u00f3 c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1ebd b\u1ecb \u0111\u1ed5 v\u1ee1. M\u1eb7t kh\u00e1c, s\u1ef1 ho\u00e0i nghi c\u1ee7a Descartes c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 kh\u00f4ng l\u00e0m cho ch\u00fang ta thay \u0111\u1ed5i c\u00e1ch th\u1ee9c h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng. Theo Peirce, tri th\u1ee9c, m\u00e0 \u00f4ng \u0111\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 gi\u1ea3i ph\u00e1p cho nh\u1eefng th\u00f3i quen b\u1ecb \u0111\u1ed5 v\u1ee1 v\u00ec s\u1ef1 x\u00e9t l\u1ea1i ni\u1ec1m tin, m\u1edbi ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t \u201cti\u1ebfn tr\u00ecnh ph\u1ea3n \u1ee9ng t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean\u201d (homeostatic process, nh\u01b0 trong tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p c\u01a1 th\u1ec3 ch\u00fang ta r\u00f9ng m\u00ecnh khi g\u1eb7p l\u1ea1nh, h\u1eaft h\u01a1i khi b\u1ecb ch\u00f3i n\u1eafng). \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi Peirce, tri th\u1ee9c l\u00e0 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ti\u1ec7n d\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ec3 \u1ed5n \u0111\u1ecbnh c\u00e1ch \u1ee9ng ph\u00f3 theo th\u00f3i quen \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 ho\u00e0i nghi. (Philosophy: 100 Essential Thinkers, Philip Stokes, NXB Arturus, 2016, tr. 126).<\/p>\n

Trong b\u00e0i n\u00f3i chuy\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean v\u1edbi t\u1ef1a \u0111\u1ec1 \u201cHow to Make Our Ideas Clear\u201d, Peirce vi\u1ebft: \u201cC\u1ed1t l\u00f5i c\u1ee7a ni\u1ec1m tin l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 h\u00ecnh th\u00e0nh th\u00f3i quen, v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ni\u1ec1m tin kh\u00e1c nhau \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c ph\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u00e1ch h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng m\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ni\u1ec1m tin \u0111\u00f3 g\u1ee3i ra.\u00a0 N\u1ebfu c\u00e1c ni\u1ec1m tin kh\u00f4ng kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t nhau trong ph\u1ea1m vi n\u00e0y, n\u1ebfu ch\u00fang kh\u00f4ng h\u1ea1 gi\u1ea3m b\u1edbt s\u1ef1 ho\u00e0i nghi \u0111\u00f3 b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch s\u1ea3n sinh c\u00f9ng qui lu\u1eadt h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng, th\u00ec nh\u1eefng s\u1ef1 kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t \u0111\u01a1n thu\u1ea7n v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng di\u1ec7n \u00fd th\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 khi\u1ebfn ch\u00fang th\u00e0nh nh\u1eefng ni\u1ec1m tin kh\u00e1c nhau.\u201d (Pragmatism: A Reader do Louis Menand hi\u1ec7u \u0111\u00ednh, do A Vintage Orginal xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n n\u0103m 1997, tr.33)<\/p>\n

Peirce c\u00f2n cho r\u1eb1ng t\u00ednh duy l\u00fd (rationality), theo m\u1ed9t ph\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u00e1ch n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3, kh\u00f4ng bao g\u1ed3m c\u1ea3m nh\u1eadn, m\u00e0 bao g\u1ed3m h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng. Nh\u1eadn \u0111\u1ecbnh n\u00e0y kh\u00e1c v\u1edbi James, ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f9ng tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i, v\u00ec James cho r\u1eb1ng t\u00ednh duy l\u00fd g\u1ed3m c\u1ea3m nh\u1eadn (feeling) v\u00e0 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng (affectivity).\u00a0 Tuy nhi\u00ean quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a c\u1ea3 hai \u0111\u1ec1u t\u1ecf ra kh\u00e1c h\u1eb3n v\u1edbi hai tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n. Theo ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a duy l\u00fd (rationalism, v\u1edbi c\u00e1c tri\u1ebft gia n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng l\u00e0 Descartes, Spinoza v\u00e0 Leibniz), l\u00fd l\u1ebd n\u00f3i chung, v\u00e0 tr\u1ef1c gi\u00e1c n\u00f3i ri\u00eang, gi\u00fap con ng\u01b0\u1eddi bi\u1ebft \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf. C\u00f2n theo ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a duy\/th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m (empiricism, ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu v\u1edbi Locke, Berkeley v\u00e0 Hume), tri th\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, tr\u1eeb tri th\u1ee9c v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng nguy\u00ean l\u00fd to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc, v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u00e0i ch\u00e2n l\u00fd l\u00f4gic, \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 do tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m m\u00e0 ra.<\/p>\n

V\u1ec1 \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c h\u1ecdc, m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea1m tr\u00f9 m\u00e0 \u00f4ng tham gia b\u00e0n lu\u1eadn t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed1i tr\u1ec5, Peirce ch\u1ec9 tr\u00edch l\u00e0 trong tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng, \u201ckhuynh h\u01b0\u1edbng c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c tri\u1ebft gia l\u00e0 lu\u00f4n lu\u00f4n x\u00e1c quy\u1ebft r\u1ea5t tuy\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ed1i\u201d; v\u00e0 tuy kh\u00f4ng tranh lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng James v\u00e0 Dewey l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo thuy\u1ebft t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed1i (relativists), nh\u01b0ng \u00f4ng e ng\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng tri\u1ebft l\u00fd c\u1ee7a hai ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0y c\u1ef1c k\u1ef3 linh \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u00e0 c\u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 d\u1eabn d\u1eaft ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta \u0111i theo m\u1ed9t \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng h\u01b0\u1edbng kh\u00e1c. C\u00f9ng ch\u00ednh v\u00ec l\u00fd do n\u00e0y, m\u00e0 \u00f4ng thay \u0111\u1ed5i ch\u1ee7 thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh, t\u1eeb \u201cpragmatism\u201d th\u00e0nh \u201cpragmaticism\u201d nh\u01b0 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp. Theo Peirce, \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c h\u1ecdc c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec7m v\u1ee5 h\u00ecnh th\u00e0nh m\u1ee5c ti\u00eau cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng cho c\u00e1ch \u1ee9ng x\u1eed c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi (the summum bonum), m\u1ed9t c\u1ee9u c\u00e1nh m\u00e0 theo \u00f4ng, c\u00f3 t\u00ednh c\u00e1ch n\u0103ng \u0111\u1ed9ng, ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 t\u00ednh c\u00e1ch t\u0129nh. Ngo\u00e0i ra, Peirce c\u00f2n l\u00fd lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c h\u1ecdc kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u nh\u1eefng g\u00ec c\u00f3 t\u00ednh c\u00e1ch l\u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng, m\u00e0 l\u00e0 \u201cs\u1ef1 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u nh\u1eefng c\u1ee9u c\u00e1nh c\u1ee7a h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng m\u00e0 ch\u00fang ta chu\u1ea9n b\u1ecb k\u1ef9 l\u01b0\u1ee1ng \u0111\u1ec3 theo.\u201d Trong \u00fd h\u01b0\u1edbng \u1ea5y, Peirce th\u00edch nghi \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng v\u1edbi l\u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng th\u1ea9m m\u1ef9 v\u1ec1 t\u00ednh h\u1eefu l\u00fd (aesthetic ideal of reasonableness). \u00d4ng tranh c\u1ea3i r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch c\u01b0 x\u1eed c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00ean nh\u1eafm m\u1ee5c ti\u00eau \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p v\u00e0o s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u h\u1eefu l\u00fd c\u1ee5 th\u1ec3 n\u00e0y, ch\u1eb3ng h\u1ea1n trong t\u01b0 duy ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb t\u1ea1i Hoa K\u1ef3, ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ch\u1ec9 danh phong tr\u00e0o d\u00e2n quy\u1ec1n (civil rights) l\u00e0 gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb c\u1ee5 th\u1ec3 r\u00fat ra t\u1eeb l\u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng chung \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u1ea5n \u0111\u1ecbnh trong Hi\u1ebfn Ph\u00e1p (Peirce: Ethics and the Conduct of Life, TG Douglas R. Anderson, trong quy\u1ec3n Classical American Pragmatism: Its Contemporary do S.B. Rosenthal, C.R. Hausman v\u00e0 D.R. Anderson hi\u1ec7u \u0111\u00ednh, tr. 137-145).<\/p>\n

Theo Louis Menand trong quy\u1ec3n \u201cThe Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in Ameica\u201d, tr. 161, th\u00ec khi c\u00f2n l\u00e0 sinh vi\u00ean, Peirce th\u00edch d\u00f9ng tam \u0111o\u1ea1n lu\u1eadn (syllogism) \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ec3 chia x\u1ebb quan \u0111i\u1ec3m v\u1edbi cha m\u00ecnh trong v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 n\u00e0y:<\/p>\n

T\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ec1u b\u00ecnh \u0111\u1eb3ng v\u1ec1 c\u00e1c quy\u1ec1n ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb;<\/p>\n

Ng\u01b0\u1eddi da \u0111en l\u00e0 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi;<\/p>\n

(V\u00ec v\u1eady) Ng\u01b0\u1eddi da \u0111en b\u00ecnh \u0111\u1eb3ng v\u1ec1 c\u00e1c quy\u1ec1n ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb nh\u01b0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi da tr\u1eafng.<\/p>\n

Quan \u0111i\u1ec3m d\u00e2n quy\u1ec1n n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c coi l\u00e0 r\u1ea5t quan tr\u1ecdng, \u0111\u1ebfn n\u1ed7i nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi cho r\u1eb1ng n\u1ebfu CNTD ra \u0111\u1eddi s\u1edbm v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn r\u1ed9ng r\u00e3i, th\u00ec cu\u1ed9c n\u1ed9i chi\u1ebfn Nam B\u1eafc t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u00e0n v\u1edbi 600.000 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u1ebft, v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 ti\u00eau c\u1ef1c v\u1eabn c\u00f2n t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ebfn ng\u00e0y nay, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng x\u1ea3y ra tr\u00ean \u0111\u1ea5t n\u01b0\u1edbc Hoa K\u1ef3. Quan \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00e0y th\u1eadt s\u1ef1 c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng h\u1eb3n \u0111\u00fang. B\u1edfi l\u1ebd CNTD \u0111\u00e3 ra \u0111\u1eddi tr\u00ean 100 n\u0103m nay r\u1ed3i, m\u00e0 n\u1ea1n k\u1ef3 th\u1ecb ch\u1ee7ng t\u1ed9c tr\u00ean \u0111\u1ea5t M\u1ef9 \u0111\u00e2u c\u00f3 bi\u1ebfn m\u1ea5t, c\u1ee9 t\u00e1i \u0111i t\u00e1i l\u1ea1i; c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 g\u1ea7n \u0111\u00e2y x\u1ea3y ra nh\u1eefng tranh ch\u1ea5p gay g\u1eaft th\u1eadm ch\u00ed ch\u1ebft ng\u01b0\u1eddi v\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c g\u1ee1 b\u1ecf c\u00e1c t\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u00e0i k\u1ef7 ni\u1ec7m do c\u00e1nh Mi\u1ec1n Nam d\u1ef1ng l\u00ean sau cu\u1ed9c N\u1ed9i Chi\u1ebfn Nam B\u1eafc. H\u00ecnh nh\u01b0 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u1eafp m\u1ecdi n\u01a1i tr\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi \u0111\u00e3 \u201cquen\u201d y\u00eau ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a nh\u1ea5t nguy\u00ean c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh r\u1ed3i! B\u1ecf n\u00f3 \u0111i, th\u00ec c\u1ea3m th\u1ea5y m\u00ecnh m\u1ea5t \u0111i b\u1ea3n s\u1eafc!<\/p>\n

William James (1842-1910)<\/strong><\/span><\/h2>\n

\"\"Th\u1ee7a nh\u1ecf James \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gia \u0111\u00ecnh cho sang h\u1ecdc \u1edf nhi\u1ec1u n\u01b0\u1edbc ch\u00e2u \u00c2u. Mu\u1ed1n tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t h\u1ecda s\u0129, nh\u01b0ng nh\u1eadn th\u1ea5y kh\u00f4ng th\u00edch h\u1ee3p, James v\u1ec1 M\u1ef9 v\u00e0o h\u1ecdc Harvard, b\u1ea1n v\u1edbi Pierce, v\u00e0 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh ng\u01b0\u1eddi gi\u00fap \u0111\u1ee1 h\u00e0o ph\u00f3ng sau n\u00e0y khi Pierce g\u1eb7p kh\u00f3 kh\u0103n v\u1ec1 sinh k\u1ebf.\u00a0 T\u1ed1t nghi\u1ec7p y khoa, d\u1ea1y c\u01a1 th\u1ec3 h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 sinh l\u00fd h\u1ecdc t\u1ea1i Harvard, r\u1ed3i chuy\u1ec3n th\u00e0nh gi\u00e1o s\u01b0 t\u00e2m l\u00fd h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc cho \u0111\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng n\u0103m cu\u1ed1i \u0111\u1eddi.\u00a0 B\u1ed9 s\u00e1ch 2 quy\u1ec3n The Principles of Psychology (xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n n\u0103m 1890) gi\u00fap \u00f4ng n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng th\u1eddi \u0111\u00f3 v\u00e0 nay tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh kinh \u0111i\u1ec3n.\u00a0 Trong nh\u1eefng c\u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n sau \u0111\u00f3, g\u1ed3m The Will to Believe and Other Essays in Popular Philosophy (1897), The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902), Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking (1907), The Meaning of Truth: A Sequel to Pragmatism (1909), A Pluralistic Universe (1909) v\u00e0 Essays in Radical Empiricism (1912, sau khi \u00f4ng m\u1ea5t), James t\u00ecm c\u00e1ch n\u00e2ng c\u00e1c l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c tinh th\u1ea7n, tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o, x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i th\u00e0nh nh\u1eefng ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a l\u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng (idealisms). Theo nhi\u1ec1u nh\u00e0 ph\u00ea b\u00ecnh, l\u1ed1i vi\u1ebft c\u1ee7a James kh\u00f4ng r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng, bay b\u01b0\u1edbm b\u1eb1ng l\u1ed1i vi\u1ebft c\u1ee7a em \u00f4ng, t\u1ee9c nh\u00e0 v\u0103n thi\u00ean t\u00e0i Henry James, v\u00e0 \u00f4ng c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng \u0111i s\u00e2u v\u00e0 xa trong l\u00fd lu\u1eadn \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ea9y m\u1ea1nh quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh; tuy nhi\u00ean h\u1ecd \u0111\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ed3ng \u00fd ch\u00ednh \u00f4ng m\u1edbi l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 c\u00f4ng l\u1edbn ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn CNTD t\u1ea1i Hoa K\u1ef3 th\u1eddi \u0111\u00f3. S\u1eed d\u1ee5ng nh\u1eefng t\u1eeb ng\u1eef quen thu\u1ed9c d\u1ec5 hi\u1ec3u, nh\u01b0 gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb b\u1eb1ng ti\u1ec1n m\u1eb7t (cash-value), \u201ck\u1ebft qu\u1ea3\u201d (results), \u201cl\u1ee3i nhu\u1eadn\u201d (profits) v\u00e0 \u0111i th\u1eb3ng v\u00e0o v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1, \u00f4ng d\u1ec5 thu h\u00fat nhi\u1ec1u ngu\u1ed3n \u0111\u1ed9c gi\u1ea3.<\/p>\n

Trong quy\u1ec3n The Principles, James cho r\u1eb1ng tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m \u2014 ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft, t\u1ee9c nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u tr\u1eebu t\u01b0\u1ee3ng v\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng \u2014 m\u1edbi l\u00e0 ch\u00eca kh\u00f3a gi\u00fap ch\u00fang ta hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch th\u1ef1c ti\u1ec3n v\u1ec1 m\u00ecnh c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 v\u1ec1 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi.\u00a0\u00a0 \u00d4ng kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ed3ng \u00fd v\u1edbi ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a nh\u1ecb nguy\u00ean truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng v\u1ec1 v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t v\u00e0 tinh th\u1ea7n, nh\u01b0ng \u0111\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng cho r\u1eb1ng tinh th\u1ea7n b\u1ecb gi\u1ea3m xu\u1ed1ng ch\u1ec9 c\u00f2n l\u00e0 v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t. Theo \u00f4ng, tr\u00ed n\u00e3o ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5 th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n c\u00e1c m\u1ee5c ti\u00eau; si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc hay th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc m\u1edbi ch\u1ee9ng t\u1ecf s\u1ef1 hi\u1ec7n h\u1eefu c\u1ee7a linh h\u1ed3n. \u00d4ng ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t \u201ct\u00f4i\u201d (I, ch\u1ee7 t\u1eeb) v\u00e0 \u201cc\u00e1i t\u00f4i\u201d (Me, t\u00fac t\u1eeb). \u201cT\u00f4i\u201d th\u00ec l\u00fac n\u00e0o c\u0169ng \u00fd th\u1ee9c (concious); c\u00f2n \u201cc\u00e1i t\u00f4i\u201d l\u00e0 c\u00e1i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u00fd th\u1ee9c v\u1ec1.\u00a0 \u00d4ng ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t c\u00e1i t\u00f4i v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t, c\u00e1i t\u00f4i x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i v\u00e0 c\u00e1i t\u00f4i tinh th\u1ea7n; ch\u00fang l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed1i th\u1ee7, c\u1ea1nh tranh nhau, v\u00e0 h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft ch\u00fang ta b\u1ecb th\u00fac \u0111\u1ea9y nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t kh\u00e1n gi\u1ea3 l\u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng trong vi\u1ec7c ph\u00e1n x\u00e9t c\u00e1c t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u00e1c c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang.<\/p>\n

Trong quy\u1ec3n Pragmatism, James cho r\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m (empiricists) l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng k\u1ebb bi quan, kh\u00f4ng t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o, ng\u1edd v\u1ef1c v\u00e0 \u0111a nguy\u00ean; c\u00f2n nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a duy l\u00fd (rationalists) l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng, l\u1ea1c quan; v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a nh\u1ea5t nguy\u00ean (monists) l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng k\u1ebb gi\u00e1o \u0111i\u1ec1u. C\u1ea3 ba, theo \u00f4ng, kh\u00f4ng l\u00e0m th\u1ecfa m\u00e3n nhu c\u1ea7u tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi c\u00e1c s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n, khoa h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t con ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u00ecnh th\u01b0\u1eddng; m\u00e0 ch\u00ednh CNTD m\u1edbi c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0m th\u1ecfa m\u00e3n c\u00e1c nhu c\u1ea7u n\u00e0y b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p h\u1ea5p d\u1eabn m\u1ecdi khuynh h\u01b0\u1edbng, kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ee7 nh\u1eadn t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o l\u1eabn c\u00e1c s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n, v\u00e0 ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn t\u00ednh ch\u1ee7 quan nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 quan tr\u1ecdng trong tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc. Kh\u00e1c v\u1edbi Peirce, ng\u01b0\u1eddi cho r\u1eb1ng CNTD ch\u1ec9 li\u00ean quan t\u1edbi \u00fd ngh\u0129a m\u00e0 th\u00f4i, James ch\u1ee7 x\u01b0\u1edbng r\u1eb1ng CNTN l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 c\u1ea3 \u00fd ngh\u0129a v\u00e0 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd (a theory of both meaning and truth).\u00a0 \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi James, \u00fd ngh\u0129a c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng, nh\u1eefng ni\u1ec1m tin v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c ra b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch h\u1ecfi r\u1eb1ng ch\u00fang thay \u0111\u1ed5i g\u00ec trong \u0111\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng ch\u00fang ta. V\u00e0 ch\u00fang l\u00e0 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd n\u1ebfu s\u1ed1ng theo ch\u00fang s\u1ebd \u0111\u01b0a \u0111\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng m\u1ed1i quan h\u1ec7 th\u1ecfa \u0111\u00e1ng v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng ph\u1ea7n kh\u00e1c c\u1ee7a tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta (satisfactory relations with other parts of our experience).\u00a0 N\u00f3i v\u1eafn t\u1eaft, gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb c\u1ee5 th\u1ec3 (cash-value, gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb b\u1eb1ng ti\u1ec1n m\u1eb7t) c\u1ee7a ch\u00e2n l\u00fd l\u00e0 g\u00ec? C\u00e2u tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi: Nh\u1eefng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u00fang l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng m\u00e0 ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ed3ng h\u00f3a, chu\u1ea9n nh\u1eadn, tr\u01b0ng ra b\u1eb1ng c\u1edb v\u00e0 ch\u1ee9ng th\u1ef1c (assimilate, validate, corroborate and verify); c\u00f2n nh\u1eefng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng sai l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng th\u00ec ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 l\u00e0m nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c. (Fifty Major Philosophers: A Reference Guide, do Dian\u00e9 Collinson vi\u1ebft, Routlege xb n\u0103m 1987, tr. 117-118). \u00a0Th\u1ef1c ra, ph\u1ea1m tr\u00f9 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd\/ \u0111\u00fang th\u1ef1c n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c James \u0111\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a v\u1edbi 15 c\u00e1ch: (1) Nh\u1eefng \u00fd ngh\u0129 gi\u00fap ch\u00fang ta tham d\u1ef1 v\u00e0o m\u1ed1i quan h\u1ec7 th\u1ecfa \u0111\u00e1ng v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng ph\u1ea7n kh\u00e1c c\u1ee7a tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m. (2) Nh\u1eefng \u00fd ngh\u0129a dung h\u00f2a nh\u1eefng ch\u00e2n l\u00fd c\u0169 v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m m\u1edbi. (3) M\u1ed9t c\u00e1i t\u00ean d\u00f9ng chung cho t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9 gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecbnh v\u1ec1 tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m. \u00a0(A name for all sorts of definite working values in experience), (4) B\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 m\u1ed9t \u00fd ngh\u0129 n\u00e0o c\u00f3 gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb trong \u0111\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng c\u1ee5 th\u1ec3, \u2026. (14) M\u1ed9t ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ti\u1ec7n trong ti\u1ebfn tr\u00ecnh suy ngh\u0129 c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta. (15) M\u1ed9t hi\u1ec7n th\u1ef1c \u0111ang t\u0103ng tr\u01b0\u1edfng. \u00a0(Puritans and Pragmatists: Eight Eminent American Thinkers, TG Paul K. Conkin, NXB Indiana University Press, 1976, tr 328).\u00a0 Nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a kh\u00f4ng gi\u1ed1ng nhau n\u00e0y c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 khi\u1ebfn ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ecdc b\u1ed1i r\u1ed1i.\u00a0 Tuy nhi\u00ean, ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec3u ph\u1ea7n n\u00e0o nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n: quy\u1ec3n Pragmatism l\u00e0 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m gom g\u00f3p t\u1eeb 8 b\u00e0i n\u00f3i chuy\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i Lowel Institute (Boston) v\u00e0o th\u00e1ng 11 v\u00e0 12 n\u0103m 1906, v\u00e0 t\u1ea1i Columbia University (New York) v\u00e0o th\u00e1ng 1 v\u00e0 th\u00e1ng 2 n\u0103m 1907.<\/p>\n

James gi\u00fap ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ecdc nh\u1eadn ra c\u00e1i c\u1ee5 th\u1ec3, t\u00ednh h\u1eefu d\u1ee5ng c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 t\u00ednh ti\u00ean \u0111o\u00e1n c\u1ee7a CNTD.\u00a0 Th\u1eadt v\u1eady, trong khi tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc th\u1eddi trung c\u1ed5 (scholasticism) tra v\u1ea5n: \u201cC\u00e1i n\u00e0y th\u1eadt ra l\u00e0 g\u00ec?\u201d \u0111\u1ec3 r\u1ed3i r\u01a1i v\u00e0o v\u00f2ng l\u00fd s\u1ef1, l\u1ea9n qu\u1ea9n \u0111i t\u00ecm l\u1ea1i ti\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ec1 (quiddities); hay ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a Darwin m\u1ea1nh d\u1ea1n h\u1ecfi: \u201cNgu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c c\u1ee7a c\u00e1i n\u00e0y l\u00e0 chi \u0111\u00e2y?\u201d \u0111\u1ec3 r\u1ed3i ph\u1ea3i ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c t\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm c\u00e2u tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi trong kh\u1ed1i tinh v\u00e2n h\u1ed5n \u0111\u1ed9n (nebulas), th\u00ec CNTN \u0111i th\u1eb3ng v\u00e0o \u201c\u0111\u1eddi th\u01b0\u1eddng\u201d r\u1ea5t th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf: \u201cC\u00e1i n\u00e0y \u0111em l\u1ea1i nh\u1eefng h\u1eadu qu\u1ea3 g\u00ec?\u201d C\u00e2u h\u1ecfi n\u00e0y nghe ra r\u1ea5t tr\u1ea7n t\u1ee5c, nghe kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 g\u00ec tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, nh\u01b0ng khi\u1ebfn ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta suy ngh\u0129 \u0111\u1ec3 h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u00e0 ngh\u0129 \u0111\u1ebfn t\u01b0\u01a1ng lai.<\/p>\n

Ng\u00e0y nay h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i s\u1ed1ng trong x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i \u0111a nguy\u00ean, khi\u1ebfn nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi trong ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng th\u1ea5y ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a \u0111a nguy\u00ean l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u m\u1edbi l\u1ea1.\u00a0 Nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a \u0111a nguy\u00ean th\u1eddi n\u00e0o c\u0169ng th\u1ea5y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u00e0 \u1edf \u0111\u00e2u c\u0169ng c\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c.\u00a0 V\u00e0o th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 16-17, ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a nh\u1ea5t nguy\u00ean \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a ch\u00e2u \u00c2u v\u0103n minh \u0111\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o \u0111\u1ea9m m\u00e1u.\u00a0 Sau nh\u1eefng ch\u00e9m gi\u1ebft \u0111\u00f3, ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a t\u1ef1 do (liberalism\u2014ng\u01b0\u1eddi vi\u1ebft kh\u00f4ng d\u1ecbch l\u00e0 c\u1ea5p ti\u1ebfn nh\u01b0 nhi\u1ec1u c\u01a1 quan truy\u1ec1n th\u00f4ng ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t, v\u00ec liberalism c\u00f3 g\u1ed1c Latin liber: t\u1ef1 do, nh\u01b0 freedom) m\u1edbi n\u1ea3y sinh, v\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta m\u1edbi th\u1ea5y m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 dung h\u00f2a, dung h\u1ee3p, \u0111\u1ed9 l\u01b0\u1ee3ng l\u00e0 c\u1ea7n thi\u1ebft \u0111\u1ec3 c\u00f3 h\u00f2a b\u00ecnh l\u00e2u d\u00e0i. James k\u00eau g\u1ecdi m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00f3n ti\u1ebfp ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a \u0111a nguy\u00ean n\u1ed3ng nhi\u1ec7t v\u00e0 t\u00edch c\u1ef1c. Theo James, nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi trong ch\u00fang ta qu\u00e1 th\u1edd \u01a1 hay qu\u00e1 d\u1ec5 d\u00e0ng kh\u00f4ng nh\u1eadn ra \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u00e0 nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng kh\u00f4ng gi\u1ed1ng cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng ch\u00fang ta.\u00a0 Khi l\u00e0m nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf, th\u00ec ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng nh\u1eadn ra \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eefng kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t ch\u00ednh \u0111\u00e1ng.<\/p>\n

John Dewey (1859 \u2013 1952)<\/strong><\/span><\/h2>\n

\"\"Sau khi t\u1ed1t nghi\u1ec7p University of Vermont (khoa h\u1ecdc trong nh\u1eefng n\u0103m \u0111\u1ea7u; tri\u1ebft, lu\u1eadt, s\u1eed trong n\u0103m cu\u1ed1i), Dewey theo ch\u01b0\u01a1ng tr\u00ecnh Cao H\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1edf n\u0103m 1881 t\u1ea1i John Hopkins University, n\u01a1i Charles Peirce \u0111ang gi\u1ea3ng d\u1ea1y\u2013 nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng h\u1ecdc v\u1edbi Peirce.\u00a0 L\u00fac \u0111\u00f3, \u00f4ng ch\u1ecbu \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Hegel. T\u1eeb 1884 \u0111\u1ebfn 1894, Dewey d\u1ea1y \u1edf University of Michigan. N\u0103m 1894 chuy\u1ec3n sang University of Chicago l\u00e0m khoa tr\u01b0\u1edfng ph\u00e2n khoa tri\u1ebft, t\u00e2m l\u00fd v\u00e0 gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c; hai n\u0103m sau m\u1edf Laboratory of Education, m\u1ed9t n\u01a1i th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m v\u1ec1 gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c c\u1ea5p ti\u1ebfn r\u1ea5t n\u1ed5i danh. \u0110\u1ebfn 1904 chuy\u1ec3n sang d\u1ea1y \u1edf Columbia University cho t\u1edbi khi v\u1ec1 h\u01b0u n\u0103m 1930. Dewey xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n h\u01a1n 30 quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch, \u0111i thuy\u1ebft tr\u00ecnh nhi\u1ec1u n\u01a1i tr\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi cho nhi\u1ec1u lo\u1ea1i th\u00ednh gi\u1ea3 kh\u00e1c nhau.\u00a0 Dewey vi\u1ebft v\u1ec1 nhi\u1ec1u l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c trong tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc: tri th\u1ee9c h\u1ecdc, si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc, lu\u1eadn l\u00fd h\u1ecdc, tri\u1ebft l\u00fd v\u1ec1 tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7, tri\u1ebft l\u00fd v\u1ec1 khoa h\u1ecdc, tri\u1ebft l\u00fd v\u1ec1 ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb, th\u1ea9m m\u1ef9 h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 tri\u1ebft l\u00fd v\u1ec1 t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o.<\/p>\n

Ch\u1ecbu \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng kh\u00e1 m\u1ea1nh c\u1ee7a thuy\u1ebft ti\u1ebfn h\u00f3a do Charles Darwin ch\u1ee7 x\u01b0\u1edbng, Dewey ngh\u0129 r\u1eb1ng t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u00e0 tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n trong qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh ti\u1ebfn h\u00f3a cho ph\u00e9p con ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u1ec9nh \u0111\u1ed1n l\u1ea1i m\u00f4i tr\u01b0\u1eddng s\u1ed1ng c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. Theo Dewey, nh\u1eefng ni\u1ec1m tin (Peirce g\u1ecdi \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng th\u00f3i quen) \u0111\u1ee7 m\u1ea1nh m\u1ebd v\u00e0 \u1ed5n \u0111\u1ecbnh \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u00fang ta tin c\u1eady, nh\u01b0ng ch\u00fang ta lu\u00f4n ph\u1ea3i m\u1edf r\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ea7u \u00f3c s\u1eb5n s\u00e0ng x\u00e9t l\u1ea1i, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0 v\u00ec ch\u00fang ph\u1ea3i t\u1ef1 th\u00edch nghi v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ed5i thay c\u1ee7a m\u00f4i tr\u01b0\u1eddng. \u00d4ng vi\u1ebft: \u201cnh\u1eefng \u00fd ni\u1ec7m, nh\u1eefng l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft, nh\u1eefng h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng, vv. \u00a0l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5 (tools). Gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 trong tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5, gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang kh\u00f4ng nh\u1edd v\u00e0o ch\u00ednh ch\u00fang, nh\u01b0ng nh\u1edd \u1edf kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng l\u00e0m vi\u1ec7c c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang m\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c qua c\u00e1c hi\u1ec7u qu\u1ea3 khi s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng ch\u00fang\u201d (Dewey, The Middle Work: 12, 163). \u00d4ng cho r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng, m\u00e0 sau \u0111\u00f3 \u00f4ng \u0111\u1eb7t l\u1ea1i t\u00ean l\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5 (instrumentalism), t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5.\u00a0 Do \u0111\u00f3, nh\u1eefng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng th\u1eadt s\u1ef1 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111em l\u1ea1i hi\u1ec7u qu\u1ea3 t\u1ed1t nh\u1ea5t nh\u1eb1m \u0111\u1ea1t nh\u1eefng m\u1ee5c ti\u00eau c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi (real ideas are those work best for attaining human goals).<\/p>\n

\u00d4ng vi\u1ebft: \u201cTri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 h\u1ed3i ph\u1ee5c khi n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f2n l\u00e0 c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5 d\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ed1i ph\u00f3 v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c tri\u1ebft gia, v\u00e0 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p (method, in \u0111\u1eadm do ng\u01b0\u1eddi d\u1ecbch), \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c trao d\u1ed3i b\u1edfi c\u00e1c tri\u1ebft gia \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ed1i ph\u00f3 v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1ee7a nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i.\u201d \u00a0\u00d4ng th\u00fac b\u00e1ch tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc n\u00ean tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5 d\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ed1i ph\u00f3 v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t c\u1ee7a nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i, h\u01a1n l\u00e0 v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 xa v\u1eddi c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c tri\u1ebft gia. \u00a0\u00d4ng ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng d\u00f9ng ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p khoa h\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u1ec9nh \u0111\u1ed1n l\u1ea1i gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c, lu\u00e2n l\u00fd, ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb v\u00e0 x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i. Dewey cho r\u1eb1ng Peirce l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 l\u00fd lu\u1eadn (logician); c\u00f2n James l\u00e0 nh\u00e0 nh\u00e2n b\u1ea3n (humanist).\u00a0 V\u1ec1 ph\u1ea7n m\u00ecnh, Dewey nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh t\u00ednh c\u00e1ch x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i c\u1ee7a tri th\u1ee9c (the social character of knowledge). \u00a0Nh\u01b0ng Peirce l\u1ea1i th\u1ea5y r\u1eb1ng kh\u1ea3o h\u01b0\u1edbng theo t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Dewey \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi lu\u1eadn l\u00fd h\u1ecdc l\u00e0 qu\u00e1 t\u00e2m l\u00fd.<\/p>\n

C\u0169ng nh\u01b0 James, Dewey ngh\u0129 r\u1eb1ng con ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00e0m ra ch\u00e2n l\u00fd. Ch\u00e2n l\u00fd kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 th\u1ee9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u00e0m s\u1eb5n hay ch\u1ebf s\u1eb5n. \u00d4ng vi\u1ebft: \u201cNg\u01b0\u1eddi theo CNTD n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng v\u00ec m\u1ed7i ti\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ec1 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ecbnh v\u1ec1 m\u1ed9t tra v\u1ea5n c\u00f2n \u0111ang ti\u1ebfn h\u00e0nh (n\u00f3i g\u1ecdn, m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ec1 xu\u1ea5t), n\u00ean ch\u00e2n l\u00fd c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 ngh\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p, m\u1ed9t v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 l\u1ecbch s\u1eed: ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 n\u00f3 tr\u1edf n\u00ean th\u1ef1c, ho\u1eb7c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u00e0m cho th\u1ef1c (ho\u1eb7c sai).\u201d\u00a0 (The pragmatist says that since every proposition is a hypothesis referring to an inquiry still to be undertaken (a proposal for short) its truth is a matter of its career, of its history: that it becomes or is made true (or false).<\/p>\n

Trong khi Peirce cho r\u1eb1ng ch\u00e2n l\u00fd \u1edf t\u00ecnh tr\u1ea1ng t\u0129nh, ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ni\u1ec1m tin ho\u1eb7c v\u01b0\u1ee3t qua ho\u1eb7c kh\u00f4ng v\u01b0\u1ee3t qua n\u1ed5i nh\u1eefng kh\u1eafc nghi\u1ec7t c\u1ee7a tra v\u1ea5n, th\u00ec Dewey \u2013c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 James\u2014cho r\u1eb1ng ch\u00e2n l\u00fd v\u00e0 tri th\u1ee9c kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng t\u0129nh, ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng \u1edf trong tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p m\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ni\u1ec1m tin c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta ho\u1eb7c ph\u1ea3n \u1ea3nh th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf (v\u00e0 do \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 \u0111\u00fang) ho\u1eb7c kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3n \u1ea3nh th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf (v\u00e0 do \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 sai).<\/p>\n

V\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng di\u1ec7n d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7, n\u1ebfu h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 Ph\u00e1p Tocqueville nhi\u1ec7t t\u00ecnh ca ng\u1ee3i sinh ho\u1ea1t d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 t\u1ea1i Hoa K\u1ef3 v\u00e0 than phi\u1ec1n Hoa K\u1ef3 thi\u1ebfu m\u1ed9t n\u1ec1n tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc n\u00f3i chung cho m\u00ecnh, th\u00ec Dewey m\u1edbi l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u1ebft s\u1ed1ng v\u1edbi d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 v\u00e0 tri\u1ebft l\u00fd h\u00f3a d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7.\u00a0 Ngo\u00e0i vi\u1ec7c c\u1ed5 v\u0169 d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 tr\u00ean l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft, Dewey c\u00f2n gi\u00fap th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp hai hi\u1ec7p h\u1ed9i: The American Civil Liberties v\u00e0 The National Assosiation for the Advancement of Colored People; v\u00e0 n\u0103m 1937, l\u00fac \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 78 tu\u1ed5i, Dewey c\u00f2n d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ea7u m\u1ed9t \u1ee7y ban sang Mexico \u0111i\u1ec1u tra v\u1ec1 c\u00e1i ch\u1ebft c\u1ee7a Leon Trotsky \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c cho l\u00e0 b\u1ecb ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u1ee7a Joseph Stalin \u00e1m s\u00e1t. Nh\u1eefng ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng t\u00edch c\u1ef1c n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 khi\u1ebfn \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1eb7ng cho danh hi\u1ec7u \u201ctri\u1ebft gia c\u1ee7a d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7\u201d c\u1ee7a Hoa K\u1ef3.<\/p>\n

Tri\u1ebft l\u00fd d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 c\u1ee7a Dewey \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem l\u00e0 g\u1ea1ch n\u1ed1i gi\u1eefa ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n (individualism) c\u1ee7a Locke \u2013\u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00e1c ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb gia M\u1ef9 \u0111\u01b0a v\u00e0o Hi\u1ebfn Ph\u00e1p c\u00f9ng nh\u1eefng v\u0103n b\u1ea3n quan tr\u1ecdng ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb kh\u00e1c\u2014v\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m (empiricism). \u00a0V\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng di\u1ec7n t\u00e1i thi\u1ebft ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i, \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t quan \u0111i\u1ec3m r\u1ea5t th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m.\u00a0 Theo \u00f4ng, ch\u00fang ta s\u1ebd ch\u01b0a tho\u00e1t kh\u1ecfi th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc v\u1ec1 tri\u1ebft l\u00fd ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb, n\u1ebfu ch\u00fang ta v\u1eabn ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c n\u00e9m v\u00e0o \u0111\u1ea7u nhau nh\u1eefng kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m tr\u1eebu t\u01b0\u1ee3ng m\u00e0 khi d\u1ee9t cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn, th\u00ec \u0111\u00e2u v\u1eabn v\u00e0o \u0111\u1ea5y, kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec d\u1ee9t kho\u00e1t c\u1ea3. Tr\u00e1i l\u1ea1i, ch\u00fang ta c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u1ed1i ph\u00f3 v\u1edbi m\u1ed7i v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i b\u1eb1ng m\u1ed9t gi\u1ea3 thuy\u1ebft \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t, ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i b\u1eb1ng m\u1ed9t l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft ph\u1ed5 qu\u00e1t; t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng tr\u00e3i, c\u00f2n \u0111\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9 t\u1ed1t \u0111\u1eb9p ph\u1ea3i tr\u00f4ng c\u1eady v\u00e0o nh\u1eefng th\u1eed nghi\u1ec7m nh\u1eadn ra c\u00e1i \u0111\u00fang c\u00e1i sai. (Goethe c\u00f3 c\u00f9ng quan \u0111i\u1ec3m v\u1ec1 v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 n\u00e0y khi vi\u1ebft \u201cT\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ec1u m\u00e0u x\u00e1m, ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 c\u00e2y \u0111\u1eddi l\u00e0 m\u00e3i m\u00e3i xanh t\u01b0\u01a1i.\u201d)<\/p>\n

Dewey vi\u1ebft: \u201cTrong c\u00e1c kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m ti\u1ec1n-th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m, t\u00f4i ch\u1eb3ng th\u1ea5y tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p n\u00e0o m\u00e0 k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng l\u1ea1i l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t c\u00e1i g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 chi\u1ebfn th\u1eafng cho \u00fd ni\u1ec7m n\u00e0y hay cho kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m kia. T\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 ch\u00fang \u0111\u1ec1u bi\u1ebfn m\u1ea5t \u0111i v\u00ec ch\u00fang c\u00e0ng tr\u1edf n\u00ean kh\u00f4ng c\u00f2n li\u00ean h\u1ec7 g\u00ec \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi t\u00ecnh th\u1ebf m\u1edbi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1; v\u00e0 v\u1edbi m\u1ed1i b\u1ea5t li\u00ean h\u1ec7 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1eaft g\u1eb7p n\u00e0y, ch\u00fang tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh v\u00f4 ngh\u0129a v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u00e1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c quan t\u00e2m.\u201d (New Republic, Feb 3, 1917, tr\u00edch l\u1ea1i t\u1eeb The Story of Philosophy do Will Durant vi\u1ebft, Pocket Books xb n\u0103m 2006, tr. 689)<\/p>\n

V\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0a ra ti\u00eau chu\u1ea9n kh\u00e1 \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t: \u201cNg\u01b0\u1eddi x\u1ea5u l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u xu\u1ed1ng d\u1ed1c, tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh \u00edt t\u1ed1t h\u01a1n, d\u1eabu tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3, anh ta t\u1ed1t th\u1ebf n\u00e0o \u0111i n\u1eefa. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi t\u1ed1t l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111ang ti\u1ebfn t\u1edbi t\u1ed1t h\u01a1n, d\u1eabu tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3, anh ta ch\u1eb3ng \u0111\u00e1ng gi\u00e1 g\u00ec v\u1ec1 tinh th\u1ea7n.\u201d (Reconstruction in Philosophy, tr\u00edch l\u1ea1i trong s\u00e1ch tr\u00ean, tr. 685). Quan \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00e0y c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng r\u1ea5t nh\u00e2n b\u1ea3n, kh\u00f4ng kh\u00e1c g\u00ec quan \u0111i\u1ec3m trong Ph\u1eadt gi\u00e1o v\u00e0 Thi\u00ean Ch\u00faa gi\u00e1o, nh\u01b0ng li\u1ec7u c\u00f3 ai \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng v\u00e0o l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 t\u1ea1i t\u00f2a \u00e1n ch\u0103ng? \u00d4ng c\u00f2n th\u00eam r\u1eb1ng, t\u1ed1t kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 bi\u1ebft v\u00e2ng l\u1eddi v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng h\u00e3m h\u1ea1i ai; t\u1ed1t m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng, th\u00ec l\u00e0 qu\u00e8 qu\u1eb7t kh\u1eadp khi\u1ec5ng.\u00a0 Theo \u00f4ng, t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ee9c t\u00ednh tr\u00ean \u0111\u1eddi kh\u00f4ng c\u1ee9u n\u1ed7i ch\u00fang ta n\u1ebfu ch\u00fang ta thi\u1ebfu th\u00f4ng minh. Ch\u00fang ta ph\u1ea3i tin v\u00e0o t\u01b0 du\u1ef5, ch\u1ee9 \u0111\u1eebng tin v\u00e0o tr\u1ef1c gi\u00e1c, b\u1edfi l\u1ebd tr\u1ef1c gi\u00e1c l\u00e0m sao gi\u00fap n\u1ed7i ch\u00fang ta \u0111i\u1ec1u ch\u1ec9nh v\u1edbi ngo\u1ea1i c\u1ea3nh c\u00e0ng ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ed5i thay quanh ta.<\/p>\n

Trong l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 n\u00f3i \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Dewey r\u1ea5t l\u1edbn lao. L\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111i d\u1ea1y h\u1ecdc l\u00e2u n\u0103m \u1edf nhi\u1ec1u mi\u1ec1n kh\u00e1c nhau tr\u00ean \u0111\u1ea5t n\u01b0\u1edbc Hoa K\u1ef3 r\u1ed9ng l\u1edbn, n\u00ean t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng r\u1ea5t ph\u00f3ng kho\u00e1ng v\u00e0 th\u1ef1c ti\u1ec3n.\u00a0 C\u00f3 th\u1ec3 n\u00f3i kh\u00f4ng m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 gi\u00e1o hay m\u1ed9t tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ecdc c\u1ea5p ti\u1ebfn n\u00e0o \u1edf M\u1ef9 m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ecbu \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng.\u00a0 Sau Th\u1ebf Chi\u1ebfn Th\u1ee9 Nh\u1ea5t, \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1eddi gi\u1ea3ng d\u1ea1y v\u1ec1 d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7, tri\u1ebft l\u00fd v\u00e0 t\u1ed5 ch\u1ee9c gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c \u1edf Trung Hoa (1919-21), Nh\u1eadt (1919), Th\u1ed5 Nh\u0129 K\u1ef3 (1926), Mexico (1926), Li\u00ean X\u00f4 (1928).\u00a0 T\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng l\u00e0 quy\u1ec3n Democracy and Education xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n n\u0103m 1913, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u1ecbch ra nhi\u1ec1u th\u1ee9 ti\u1ebfng.<\/p>\n

\u00d4ng tin t\u01b0\u1edfng r\u1eb1ng gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u1ee9 ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c nh\u1edd s\u1ef1 tham gia c\u1ee7a t\u1eebng c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n v\u00e0o s\u1ef1 \u00fd th\u1ee9c tranh \u0111ua trong x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i.\u00a0 Ti\u1ebfn tr\u00ecnh n\u00e0y b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch v\u00f4 th\u1ee9c t\u1eeb khi sinh ra, v\u00e0 ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c h\u00ecnh th\u00e0nh n\u0103ng l\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n \u0111\u00f3, th\u1ea5m v\u00e0o \u00fd th\u1ee9c, h\u00ecnh th\u00e0nh th\u00f3i quen, t\u00f4i luy\u1ec7n t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng, v\u00e0 g\u1ee3i l\u00ean trong anh ta nh\u1eefng c\u1ea3m ngh\u0129 v\u00e0 x\u00fac \u0111\u1ed9ng\u2026 \u00d4ng c\u0169ng tin t\u01b0\u1edfng r\u1eb1ng gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1 ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u1ebfn nh\u1edd s\u1ef1 k\u00edch th\u00edch n\u0103ng l\u1ef1c tr\u1ebb do nh\u1eefng c\u1ee7a t\u00ecnh hu\u1ed1ng x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i trong \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u1ee9a tr\u1ebb t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y ch\u00ednh m\u00ecnh. Theo \u00f4ng, ti\u1ebfn tr\u00ecnh gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c c\u00f3 2 l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c: t\u00e2m l\u00fd v\u00e0 x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i, kh\u00f4ng l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c n\u00e0o l\u00e0 ph\u1ee5 hay b\u1ecb b\u1ecf r\u01a1i m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0a \u0111\u1ebfn t\u1ec7 h\u1ea1i, c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 dung h\u00f2a c\u1ea3 hai. Dewey cho r\u1eb1ng gi\u00e1o d\u1ef1c tr\u1ebb con ph\u1ea3i b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u t\u1eeb hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft t\u00e2m l\u00fd v\u1ec1 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng, h\u1ee9ng th\u00fa v\u00e0 th\u00f3i quen c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ee9a tr\u1ebb. Nh\u1eefng th\u1ee9 n\u00e0y ph\u1ea3i ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gi\u1ea3ng gi\u1ea3i theo h\u00ecnh hu\u1ed1ng ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n m\u1edbi c\u1ee7a x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i. N\u00f3i c\u00e1ch kh\u00e1c, c\u00e1i h\u1ecdc ch\u1ec9 d\u1eebng l\u1ea1i khi ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta ch\u1ebft.<\/p>\n

V\u1edbi quan ni\u1ec7m gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ti\u1ebfn tr\u00ecnh sinh s\u1ed1ng (a process of living) ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 chu\u1ea9n b\u1ecb cho cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng trong t\u01b0\u01a1ng lai, Dewey ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u1ea3i t\u01b0\u1ee3ng tr\u01b0ng cho cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng \u2013m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1 v\u00e0 sinh \u0111\u1ed9ng cho \u0111\u1ee9a tr\u1ebb nh\u01b0 th\u1ec3 cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng m\u00e0 n\u00f3 c\u00f3 t\u1ea1i nh\u00e0, t\u1ea1i khu l\u00e1ng gi\u1ec1ng hay t\u1ea1i s\u00e2n ch\u01a1i. Nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ecbnh ch\u1ebf, h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng n\u00ean gi\u1ea3n l\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u00f3a \u0111\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i hi\u1ec7n h\u1eefu; n\u00ean thu nh\u1ecf n\u00f3 xu\u1ed1ng c\u00f2n l\u00e0 h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c ph\u00f4i thai, v\u00ec cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng hi\u1ec7n h\u1eefu qu\u00e1 ph\u1ee9c t\u1ea1p \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi em. \u00d4ng cho r\u1eb1ng nh\u01b0 cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng gi\u1ea3n l\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u00f3a, h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng s\u1ebd l\u1edbn d\u1ea7n th\u00e0nh cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng gia \u0111\u00ecnh, n\u00f3 \u0111\u1ea3m tr\u00e1ch v\u00e0 ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c c\u00e1c ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng khi\u1ebfn em quen v\u1edbi \u0111\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng gia \u0111\u00ecnh. N\u00f3i kh\u00e1c \u0111i, c\u00f4ng vi\u1ec7c c\u1ee7a h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng l\u00e0 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n v\u00e0 l\u00e0m s\u00e2u xa th\u00eam c\u00e1i \u00fd th\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ee9a tr\u1ebb v\u1ec1 m\u00e1i \u1ea5m gia \u0111\u00ecnh. \u00d4ng cho r\u1eb1ng n\u1ec1n gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c hi\u1ec7n th\u1eddi th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i ch\u1ec9 v\u00ec n\u00f3 l\u00e3ng qu\u00ean c\u00e1i nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc c\u0103n b\u1ea3n c\u1ee7a h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng c\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng.<\/p>\n

V\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng m\u00f4n h\u1ecdc d\u1ea1y \u1edf h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng, Dewey tin r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch duy nh\u1ea5t khi\u1ebfn cho \u0111\u1ee9a tr\u1ebb \u00fd th\u1ee9c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00e1i di s\u1ea3n x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 l\u00e0 l\u00e0m cho n\u00f3 c\u00f3 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eefng ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u0103n b\u1ea3n t\u1ea1o ra c\u00e1i v\u0103n minh nh\u01b0 ng\u00e0y nay. \u00d4ng ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u01b0a khoa h\u1ecdc v\u00e0o h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng, nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7n nh\u1eefng th\u00f4ng tin chi ti\u1ebft r\u01b0\u1eddm r\u00e0, m\u00e0 l\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 cho \u0111\u1ee9a tr\u1ebb th\u1ea5y nh\u1eefng y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 \u0111\u00e3 s\u1eb5n trong kinh nghi\u1ec7m tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e2y, v\u00e0 cung c\u1ea5p cho \u0111\u1ee9a tr\u1ebb c\u00e1c c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5 nh\u1edd \u0111\u00f3 m\u00e0 kinh nghi\u1ec7m c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111i\u1ec1u ch\u1ec9nh l\u1ea1i d\u1ec5 d\u00e0ng h\u01a1n v\u00e0 hi\u1ec7u qu\u1ea3 h\u01a1n. N\u1ebfu gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c l\u00e0 cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi, th\u00ec tr\u1ecdn cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi, ngay t\u1eeb l\u00fac ban \u0111\u1ea7u, \u0111\u00e3 bao g\u1ed3m c\u00e1c l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c khoa h\u1ecdc, ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt, v\u0103n h\u00f3a v\u00e0 th\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ea1t. Ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9 kh\u00f4ng n\u1eb1m trong vi\u1ec7c ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u, m\u00e0 n\u1eb1m trong vi\u1ec7c ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n nh\u1eefng th\u00e1i \u0111\u1ed9 m\u1edbi v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng quan t\u00e2m m\u1edbi \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi kinh nghi\u1ec7m. Dewey tin r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u1eb7t ra b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 c\u1ee9u c\u00e1nh n\u00e0o b\u00ean ngo\u00e0i ga\u00edo d\u1ee5c, nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ee5c ti\u00eau v\u00e0 ti\u00eau chu\u1ea9n, l\u00e0 t\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111o\u1ea1t \u0111i nhi\u1ec1u c\u00e1i \u00fd ngh\u0129a c\u1ee7a qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c, v\u00e0 c\u00f3 khuynh h\u01b0\u1edbng l\u00e0m cho ch\u00fang ta tr\u00f4ng c\u1eady v\u00e0o nh\u1eefng k\u00edch th\u00edch t\u1ed1 sai l\u1ea7m v\u00e0 t\u1eeb ngo\u00e0i \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ed1i ph\u00f3 v\u1edbi \u0111\u1ee9a tr\u1ebb. (Dewey on Education: Selections, do Matin S. Dworkin xb n\u0103m 1959, tr.19 \u2013 27)<\/p>\n

M\u1ed9t V\u00e0i \u00c1p D\u1ee5ng<\/p>\n

M\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 tr\u00edch d\u1eabn c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 lu\u1eadn b\u00e0n tr\u00ean \u0111\u00e2y cho th\u1ea5y 3 tri\u1ebft gia ti\u1ec1n phong c\u1ee7a CNTD M\u1ef9 \u201ctri\u1ebft l\u00fd\u201d v\u1ec1 h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft c\u00e1c ph\u1ea1m tr\u00f9 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc: \u00dd Ngh\u0129a, Ch\u00e2n L\u00fd, Gi\u00e1 Tr\u1ecb, Tra V\u1ea5n, Tri Th\u1ee9c v\u00e0 H\u00e0nh \u0110\u1ed9ng. Ri\u00eang bi\u1ec7t v\u00e0 ng\u1eafn g\u1ecdn d\u01b0\u1edbi \u0111\u00e2y, ch\u00fang ta th\u1eed \u0111\u01b0a ra v\u00e0i ph\u00e2n t\u00edch v\u1ec1 ph\u1ea1m tr\u00f9 \u201cCh\u00e2n L\u00fd\u201d (m\u1ed9t trong 3 l\u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng Ch\u00e2n-Thi\u1ec7n-M\u1ef9 m\u00e0 c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u0103n h\u1ecdc Vi\u1ec7t Nam xem l\u00e0 3 ti\u00eau chu\u1ea9n cho m\u1ed9t t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m hay) \u0111\u1ec3 xem s\u1ef1 \u1ee9ng d\u1ee5ng linh ho\u1ea1t c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 v\u00e0o cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng th\u1ef1c ti\u1ec5n c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi M\u1ef9. Theo Lowell Kleimen & Stephen Lewis, trong quy\u1ec3n Philosophy: An Introduction through Literarture (NXB Paragon House, 1992, tr. 91-96), m\u1ed9t \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd n\u1ebfu n\u00f3 h\u1ed9i \u0111\u1ee7 \u00edt nh\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 3 y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 sau \u0111\u00e2y: \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi ni\u1ec1m tin (independent of belief, t\u1ee9c kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i do ch\u00fang ta tin, mu\u1ed1n, c\u1ea7n); b\u1ea5t bi\u1ebfn (immutable, t\u1ee9c kh\u00f4ng phai nh\u1ea1t, thay \u0111\u1ed5i qua th\u1eddi gian); v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00f4ng ch\u00fang nh\u00ecn nh\u1eadn (public, t\u1ee9c \u0111\u00fang cho t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi). T\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3, theo l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft t\u01b0\u01a1ng h\u1ee3p v\u1ec1 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd (the correspondence theory of truth):\u00a0 M\u1ed9t \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd n\u1ebfu v\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 n\u1ebfu n\u00f3 t\u01b0\u01a1ng h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi c\u00e1c s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n. (Something is true if and only if it corresponds to the facts).\u00a0 C\u00f2n l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft nh\u1ea5t qu\u00e1n v\u1ec1 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd (the coherence theory of truth) l\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a: M\u1ed9t \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd n\u1ebfu v\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 n\u1ebfu n\u00f3 nh\u1ea5t qu\u00e1n (Something is true if and only if it coherents). Trong r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p, c\u1ea3 hai l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec1u kh\u00f4ng gi\u00fap ch\u00fang ta t\u00ecm ra \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u00e2n l\u00fd. Trong khi \u0111\u00f3, l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng v\u1ec1 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd (the pragmatic theory of truth) t\u1ecf ra h\u1eefu hi\u1ec7u h\u01a1n v\u00ec n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u00f2i h\u1ecfi nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n qu\u00e1 kh\u1eaft khe.\u00a0 Th\u1ef1c v\u1eady, theo l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft n\u00e0y,<\/p>\n

M\u1ed9t \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd n\u1ebfu v\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 n\u1ebfu n\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n \u201cdi\u1ec5n \u0111\u1ea1t cho gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch t\u1ed1t nh\u1ea5t.\u201d (Something is true if and only if it is part of an \u201cinference to the best explanation.\u201d)<\/p>\n

Nh\u01b0ng ch\u00e2n l\u00fd m\u00e0 CNTD gi\u00fap kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 c\u00f3 \u00edch d\u1ee5ng g\u00ec cho cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng? Theo James, \u00fd ngh\u0129 v\u00e0 kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 qua nh\u1eefng h\u1eadu qu\u1ea3 c\u1ee5 th\u1ec3 m\u00e0 ch\u00f9ng mang l\u1ea1i.\u00a0 N\u1ebfu b\u1ea1n n\u00f3i m\u1ed9t \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd, th\u00ec b\u1ea1n h\u00e3y chu\u1ea9n b\u1ecb ch\u1ee9ng minh c\u00e1i ch\u00e2n l\u00fd \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u1ec3 m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m qua c\u00e1c gi\u00e1c quan c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh.\u00a0 B\u1eb1ng kh\u00f4ng th\u00ec ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 \u201cn\u00f3i tr\u0103m voi kh\u00f4ng b\u1eb1ng m\u1ed9t b\u00e1t n\u01b0\u1edbc x\u00e1o\u201d, t\u1ef1a h\u1ed3 nh\u01b0 Hegel \u0111\u00e3 l\u00fd lu\u1eadn c\u1ef1c k\u1ef3 kh\u00fac chi\u1ebft, n\u00e0o ti\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ec1, ph\u1ea3n \u0111\u1ec1, t\u1ed5ng \u0111\u1ec1 m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9 trong l\u1ecbch s\u1eed, nh\u01b0ng theo Kierkergaard, Hegel \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng gi\u00fap \u00edch g\u00ec cho cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng h\u1eb1ng ng\u00e0y!<\/p>\n

CNTD cho r\u1eb1ng ni\u1ec1m tin kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 t\u00e1ch r\u1eddi h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng. Do \u0111\u00f3, ch\u00e2n l\u00fd\/c\u00e1i \u0111\u00fang c\u1ee7a ni\u1ec1m tin ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 qua c\u00e1c h\u1ec7 qu\u1ea3 do nh\u1eefng h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng \u0111\u00f3 mang l\u1ea1i.\u00a0 H\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng n\u00f3i \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m (experiences; xin ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t v\u1edbi v\u1edbi experience, uncountable noun, t\u1ee9c kinh nghi\u1ec7m). \u00a0hay nh\u1eefng th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m\/th\u00ed nghi\u1ec7m (experiments).\u00a0 Ch\u00fang ta n\u00ean nh\u1edb r\u1eb1ng C.S. Pierce v\u00e0 William James v\u1ed1n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u00e0o t\u1ea1o th\u00e0nh nh\u1eefng khoa h\u1ecdc gia tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh tri\u1ebft gia.\u00a0 Ngay c\u1ea3 John Dewey xem nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u00e0o t\u1ea1o chuy\u00ean ng\u00e0nh v\u1ec1 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 b\u1ecb \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng Hegel kh\u00e1 nhi\u1ec1u; nh\u01b0ng c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 3 n\u0103m \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean h\u1ecdc khoa hoc.\u00a0 Sau n\u00e0y, \u00f4ng ti\u00eat l\u1ed9 l\u00e0 ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch gi\u00e1o khoa c\u1ee7a T.H. Huxley v\u1edbi t\u1ef1a \u0111\u1ec1 Lessons in Elementary Physiology ch\u1ec9 cho th\u1ea5y m\u1ed1i li\u00ean h\u1ec7 gi\u1eefa con ng\u01b0\u1eddi v\u00e0 t\u1ea1o h\u00f3a \u0111\u00e3 th\u00f4i th\u00fac \u00f4ng nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u su\u1ed1t \u0111\u1eddi v\u1edbi k\u1ef3 v\u1ecdng \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft ch\u1ee9ng minh r\u1eb1ng khoa h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng th\u1eed nghi\u1ec7m c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 d\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ec3 gi\u1ea3i quy\u1ebft c\u00e1c v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 v\u0103n h\u00f3a v\u00e0 x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i.<\/p>\n

Hoa K\u1ef3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t qu\u1ed1c gia c\u00f2n tr\u1ebb trung v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng di\u1ec7n l\u1ecbch s\u1eed.\u00a0 Nh\u1eefng th\u00e0nh ph\u1ea7n d\u00e2n ch\u00fang \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean \u0111\u1ebfn t\u1eeb nhi\u1ec1u qu\u1ed1c gia kh\u00e1c nhau c\u1ee7a ch\u00e2u \u00c2u, r\u1ed3i sau n\u00e0y t\u1eeb kh\u1eafp n\u01a1i tr\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi, mang theo nh\u1eefng gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb kh\u00e1c nhau, th\u1eadm ch\u00ed xung \u0111\u1ed9t l\u1eabn nhau.\u00a0 Ban \u0111\u1ea7u n\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t qu\u1ed1c gia n\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p, nh\u1eefng gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb, \u00fd ch\u00ed, tri\u1ebft l\u00fd, t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o, ki\u1ebfn th\u1ee9c vv. t\u1eeb c\u1ef1u l\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ecba \u0111\u00e3 gi\u00fap cho c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n ti\u1ebfn d\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ebfn t\u00ecnh tr\u1ea1ng \u201can c\u01b0 l\u1ea1c nghi\u1ec7p\u201d; cho qu\u1ed1c gia ki\u1ebfn t\u1ea1o ra m\u1ed9t th\u1ec3 c\u1ebf ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb th\u1ebf quy\u1ec1n v\u00e0 d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7.\u00a0 Nh\u01b0ng khi \u0111\u1ea5t \u0111ai m\u1edf r\u1ed9ng h\u01a1n, d\u00e2n s\u1ed1 \u0111\u00f4ng \u0111\u00fac h\u01a1n, kinh t\u1ebf c\u00e0ng k\u1ef9 ngh\u1ec7 h\u00f3a, x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i tr\u1edf n\u00ean \u0111\u00f4 th\u1ecb h\u00f3a h\u01a1n, th\u00ec nh\u1eefng xung \u0111\u1ed9t quy\u1ec1n l\u1ee3i tr\u1edf n\u00ean m\u1ea1nh m\u1ebd v\u00e0 gay g\u1eaft h\u01a1n, nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi khai s\u00e1ng CNTD mu\u1ed1n gi\u1ea3i quy\u1ebft nh\u1eefng xung \u0111\u1ed9t \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u1ec3 gi\u00fap cho m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ed1ng m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng phong ph\u00fa h\u01a1n b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0a ra nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi h\u01b0\u1edbng d\u1eabn v\u1ec1 v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t hay tinh th\u1ea7n, m\u00e0 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi h\u01b0\u1edbng d\u1eabn d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean nh\u1eefng t\u01b0 duy r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng v\u1ec1 h\u1ec7 qu\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh.\u00a0 Tri\u1ebft thuy\u1ebft m\u1edbi n\u00e0y tuy th\u1ecfa m\u00e3n \u201ctinh th\u1ea7n d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c\u201d v\u00e0 c\u00f3 v\u1ebb th\u1ef1c ti\u1ec3n, nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i ai ai c\u0169ng v\u1ed3 v\u1eadp ch\u1ee5p l\u1ea5y.\u00a0 Nh\u1eefng tr\u1eafc nghi\u1ec7m \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean cho th\u1ea5y n\u00f3 c\u1ea7n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ti\u1ebfp c\u1eadn m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch c\u1ea9n th\u1eadn.\u00a0 Th\u1eadt v\u1eady, nh\u1eefng \u201cnguy\u00ean t\u1eafc\u201d, hay nh\u1eefng \u201c\u0111\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a\u201d do nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u00e1ng l\u1eadp \u0111\u01b0a ra ngay t\u1eeb l\u00fac ban \u0111\u1ea7u \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng, th\u1eadm ch\u00ed c\u00f2n m\u00e2u thu\u1ea9n. Tuy nhi\u00ean, c\u00e0ng v\u1ec1 sau n\u00e0y, nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 trong l\u0129nh v\u1ef1c ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb, khi m\u00e0 \u00fd th\u1ee9c h\u1ec7 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 g\u1ec9\u1ea3i ph\u00e1p, th\u00ec \u201ctinh th\u1ea7n th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng\u201d \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111em ra gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch, c\u00e2n nh\u1eafc v\u00e0 dung h\u00f2a \u0111\u1ec3 cho th\u1ea5y c\u00e1i \u201ctuy\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ed1i\u201d l\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng th\u00edch h\u1ee3p.<\/p>\n

Ch\u00fang ta th\u1eed l\u1ea5y m\u1ed9t th\u00ed d\u1ee5 v\u1ec1 \u00fd th\u1ee9c h\u1ec7 ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb.\u00a0 Ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta hay n\u00f3i t\u1ea1i Hoa K\u1ef3, c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 xung \u0111\u1ed9t gay g\u1eaft gi\u1eefa \u201cch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a t\u1ef1 do\u201d (liberalism\u2014xin t\u1ea1m d\u1ecbch nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf n\u00e0y, v\u00ec liber g\u1ed1c ch\u1eef Latin c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 liberty hay freedom; \u0111a s\u1ed1 truy\u1ec1n th\u00f4ng ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t d\u1ecbch liberalism l\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a c\u1ea5p ti\u1ebfn) th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1eafn li\u1ec1n v\u1edbi \u0111\u1ea3ng D\u00e2n Ch\u1ee7, v\u00e0 \u201cch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a b\u1ea3o th\u1ee7\u201d (conservatism) th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1eafn li\u1ec1n v\u1edbi \u0111\u1ea3ng C\u1ed9ng H\u00f2a. \u00a0N\u00f3i m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch r\u1ea5t t\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t, c\u1ea3 hai \u0111\u1ec1u t\u00f4n tr\u1ecdng t\u1ef1 do c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n (trong khi \u0111\u00f3 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a c\u00f4ng s\u1ea3n th\u00ec kh\u00f4ng). \u00a0\u00a0Nh\u01b0ng kh\u00e1c nhau \u1edf nhi\u1ec1u \u0111i\u1ec3m m\u00e0 hai \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u0103n b\u1ea3n l\u00e0 (1) ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a t\u1ef1 do ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n tin t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u00e0o kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, r\u1eb1ng con ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0a ra nh\u1eefng gi\u1ea3i ph\u00e1p l\u00e0m thay \u0111\u1ed5i t\u1eadn g\u1ed1c r\u1ec5 c\u01a1 c\u1ea5u x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i; trong khi \u0111\u00f3 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a b\u1ea3o th\u1ee7 nghi ng\u1edd r\u1eb1ng con ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ph\u1ea1m ph\u1ea3i sai l\u1ea7m, do \u0111\u00f3 ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0ong r\u1eb1ng n\u1ebfu c\u1ea7n thay \u0111\u1ed5i th\u00ec ph\u1ea3i t\u1eeb t\u1eeb, hay t\u0103ng th\u00eam t\u1eebng giai \u0111o\u1ea1n \u2013incrementalism).\u00a0 (2) ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a t\u1ef1 do ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n c\u1ea7n m\u1ea1nh d\u1ea1n can thi\u1ec7p v\u00e0o \u0111\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ec3 t\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ec3 t\u1ea1o c\u00f4ng b\u1eb1ng x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i; trong khi ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a b\u1ea3o th\u1ee7 ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n c\u00e0ng \u00edt can thi\u1ec7p c\u00e0ng t\u1ed1t.\u00a0 Ch\u00ednh ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng m\u1edbi v\u1ec1 vai tr\u00f2 c\u1ee7a ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 bi\u1ebfn \u201cch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a t\u1ef1 do c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec1n\u201d (classical liberalism) th\u00e0nh th\u00e0nh \u201ct\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a t\u1ef1 do\u201d (neo-liberalism).\u00a0 Phong tr\u00e0o ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng ra \u0111\u1eddi trong ho\u00e0n c\u1ea3nh \u201ct\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a t\u1ef1 do\u201d \u0111ang ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n m\u1ea1nh m\u1ebd.<\/p>\n

K\u1ebft h\u1ee3p khuynh h\u01b0\u1edbng m\u1edbi n\u00e0y v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc v\u00e0 tri\u1ebft l\u00fd c\u1ee7a CNTD, Charles W. Anderson \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m m\u1edbi.\u00a0 \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 \u201cch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a t\u1ef1 do th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng\u201d (pragmatic liberalism), m\u00e0 theo \u00f4ng, \u201cCh\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng c\u1ea7n ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a t\u1ef1 do n\u1ebfu n\u00f3 mu\u1ed1n tr\u1edf n\u00ean quan tr\u1ecdng trong l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c tinh t\u1ea7n v\u00e0 ch\u00ednh tri.\u00a0 M\u1eb7t kh\u00e1c, ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a t\u1ef1 do s\u1ebd tr\u1ed1ng r\u1ed7ng khi kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng.\u00a0 Nh\u1eefng nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc tr\u1eebu t\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u00f2i h\u1ecfi m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch.\u00a0 Nh\u1eefng gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i v\u1ec1 t\u1ef1 do, c\u00f4ng b\u1eb1ng, c\u00f4ng l\u00fd, v\u00e0 hi\u1ec7u n\u0103ng x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 b\u1eb1ng ch\u1ee9ng hi\u1ec3n nhi\u00ean theo \u00fd ngh\u0129a n\u00e0o d\u00f3, nh\u01b0ng khi \u0111em \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng v\u00e0o c\u00e1c tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p kh\u00e1c nhau, ch\u00fang c\u00f3 \u00fd ngh\u0129a g\u00ec th\u00ec kh\u00f4ng r\u00f5.\u00a0 Th\u1ef1c v\u1eady, kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i do \u0111\u1eb7t tr\u00ean n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng n\u00e0o hay theo tr\u00ecnh t\u1ef1 tri\u1ebft l\u00fd g\u00ec, m\u00e0 ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng nh\u1eefng nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc c\u0103n b\u1ea3n n\u00e0y ph\u00e1t sinh ra nh\u1eefng tranh c\u1ea3i quan tr\u1ecdng v\u1ec1 ng\u00e0nh ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 do (liberal politics).\u00a0 (Pragmatic Liberalism, NXB The University of Chicago Press, 1990, tr.4-5).<\/p>\n

\u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi m\u1ed1i quan h\u1ec7 gi\u1eefa b\u1ea3o th\u1ee7 v\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng, c\u1eefng \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u c\u1ee7a Seth Vannatta qua t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Conservatism and Pragmatism, NXB Palgrave, 2014).\u00a0 T\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u l\u1ecbch s\u1eed ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a b\u1ea3o th\u1ee7 Anh qu\u1ed1c v\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n Hoa K\u1ef3 \u0111\u1ec3 minh h\u1ecda nh\u1eefng qui chu\u1ea9n ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p lu\u1eadn (methological norms) cho bi\u1ebft nh\u1eefng tra v\u1ea5n v\u1ec1 c\u00e1c l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c, ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb, lu\u1eadt v\u00e0 l\u1ecbch s\u1eed.\u00a0 Nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 b\u1ea3o th\u1ee7 v\u1ed1n c\u00f3 t\u00ednh nghi ng\u1edd kh\u1edfi s\u1ef1 tra v\u1ea5n kh\u00f4ng d\u00f9ng nh\u1eefng nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc ti\u00ean nghi\u1ec7m (a priori principles) m\u00e0 nh\u1edd nh\u1eefng y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 ti\u1ebfp c\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u01b0 truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng, phong t\u1ee5c t\u1eadp qu\u00e1n hay c\u00e1c tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m v\u0103n h\u00f3a, kh\u00f4ng kh\u00e1c chi ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng tra v\u1ea5n qua c\u00e1c tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh.\u00a0 Nh\u1edd v\u1eady m\u00e0 c\u1ea3 hai tr\u00e1nh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111i\u1ec1u sai s\u00f3t ph\u1ed5 c\u1eadp c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc ti\u00ean nghi\u1ec7m. C\u00e1c nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc ch\u00ednh c\u1ee7a ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a b\u1ea3o th\u1ee7 Hoa K\u1ef3 c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng kh\u00e1c nhi\u1ec1u v\u1edbi c\u00e1c nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc c\u1ee7a ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a b\u1ea3o th\u1ee7 Anh qu\u1ed1c. Nh\u01b0 v\u1eady, li\u1ec7u nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 b\u1ea3o th\u1ee7 Hoa K\u1ef3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 tr\u00f4ng c\u1eady v\u00e0o ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p c\u1ee7a ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng \u0111\u1ec3 t\u00ecm ra m\u1ed9t gi\u1ea3i ph\u00e1p n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3 hay kh\u00f4ng. Ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng kh\u00f4ng cho ph\u00e9p ch\u00fang ta k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn nh\u01b0 v\u1eady, v\u00ec h\u1ec7 qu\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t gi\u1ea3i ph\u00e1p c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c minh ch\u1ee9ng qua nh\u1eefng tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m trong nh\u1eefng t\u00ecnh hu\u1ed1ng kh\u00e1c nha. Ch\u00fang ta hy v\u1ecdng trong t\u01b0\u01a1ng lai g\u1ea7n, t\u1ea1i Hoa K\u1ef3 s\u1ebd c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u m\u1edbi v\u1ec1 m\u1ed1i t\u01b0\u01a1ng quan gi\u1eefa hai ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a b\u1ea3o th v\u00e0 CNTD.<\/p>\n

Nh\u01b0ng c\u1ea7n l\u01b0u \u00fd l\u00e0 khi ch\u00fang ta \u201cli\u00ean k\u1ebft\u201d hai \u00fd th\u1ee9c h\u1ec7 ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb tr\u00ean v\u1edbi CNTD, th\u00ec c\u00f3 ph\u1ea3i ch\u0103ng ch\u00fang ta \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m m\u1ed9t \u0111i\u1ec1u kh\u00e1 ngh\u1ecbch l\u00fd: m\u1ed9t b\u00ean l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ni\u1ec1m tin l\u00e0 ph\u1ea3i theo \u0111u\u1ed5i b\u1eb1ng m\u1ecdi gi\u00e1 v\u1edbi \u00fd th\u1ee9c h\u1ec7, v\u00e0 b\u00ean kia nh\u1eefng ni\u1ec1m tin l\u00e0 ph\u1ea3i h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ecdc k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 mong mu\u1ed1n.\u00a0 Theo nh\u1eadn x\u00e9t c\u1ee7a Gi\u00e1o S\u01b0 B. Guy Peters, th\u00ec h\u1ea7u nh\u01b0 trong l\u1ecbch s\u1eed Hoa K\u1ef3 nh\u1eefng th\u1eadp ni\u00ean g\u1ea7n \u0111\u00e2y, hai ch\u00ednh \u0111\u1ea3ng l\u1edbn \u2014 hay n\u00f3i dung h\u01a1n l\u00e0 t\u1eeb Ronald Reagan, sang Geroge H.W. Bush, \u0111\u1ebfn B\u00ecll Clinton, r\u1ed3i George W. Bush c\u00f3 \u0111\u1ec1u c\u00f3 khuynh h\u01b0\u1edbng trung dung v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng \u00fd th\u1ee9c h\u1ec7 (centrist and nonideologits).\u00a0 Ch\u1ec9 khi sang Barack Obama, th\u00ec s\u1ef1 dung h\u00f2a l\u00e2u d\u00e0i \u0111\u00f3 m\u1edbi b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u chuy\u1ec3n d\u1ea1ng v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 th\u00fa nh\u1eadn c\u1ee7a v\u1ecb t\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng da m\u1ea7u n\u00e0y r\u1eb1ng m\u00ecnh theo ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng. (American Public Policy: Promise and Performance, NXB: Sage CQ Press, 9th ed, 2013, tr 17-19)<\/p>\n

***<\/p>\n

Tr\u00ean \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a 3 tri\u1ebft gia ti\u1ec1n phong c\u1ee7a ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng M\u1ef9.\u00a0 Peirce \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c coi l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1eb7t vi\u00ean \u0111\u00e1 \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean qua b\u00e0i n\u00f3i chuy\u1ec7n c\u00f3 t\u1ef1a \u0111\u1ec1 \u201cHow to Make Our Ideas Clear? (1878), l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u1edfi x\u01b0\u1edbng l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd.\u00a0 James l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n ra Peirce, t\u1ea1o n\u1ec1n m\u00f3ng v\u00e0 b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u qu\u00e3ng b\u00e1 CNTD qua t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Pragmatism (1907), c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 nh\u1eefng b\u00e0i n\u00f3i chuy\u1ec7n v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p tr\u1ea3i ngh\u1ec7m.\u00a0 Nh\u01b0ng ch\u00ednh Dewey m\u1edbi l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00e0m cho CNTD n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng h\u00f3a, k\u00eau g\u1ecdi \u0111a nguy\u00ean v\u1ec1 vi\u1ec5n ki\u1ebfn nh\u00e2n b\u1ea3n khi \u0111\u01b0a n\u00f3 v\u00e0o th\u1ef1c ti\u1ec3n qua nh\u1eefng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t qua quy\u1ec3n Democracy and Education (1913), c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 qua c\u00f4ng t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3ng d\u1ea1y t\u1ea1i nhi\u1ec1u n\u01a1i, trong v\u00e0 ngo\u00e0i n\u01b0\u1edbc M\u1ef9. Nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ee9a tr\u1ebb t\u1eadp \u0111i, CNTD \u0111\u00e3 ban \u0111\u1ea7u \u0111\u00e3 d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a c\u1ef1u l\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ecba, \u0111\u1ec3 r\u1ed3i l\u1ea7n l\u1ea7n t\u1ef1 t\u00e1ch ra v\u00e0 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n.\u00a0 T\u00ednh t\u1eeb khi b\u00e0i n\u00f3i chuy\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a Peirce ra \u0111\u1eddi, \u0111\u1ebfn khi Dewey m\u1ea5t, CNTD \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1ea3i qua 74 n\u0103m (1878 \u2013 1952). H\u1ecd l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng tri\u1ebft gia thu\u1ed9c CNTD c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n (classical pragmatism).<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

V\u1edbi nhau, h\u1ecd c\u0169ng c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng b\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ed3ng v\u00e0 tranh lu\u1eadn tuy kh\u00f4ng gay g\u1eaft.\u00a0 V\u1edbi b\u00ean ngo\u00e0i, h\u1ecd b\u1ecb c\u00f4ng k\u00edch kh\u00f4ng \u00edt, nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 t\u1eeb c\u00e1c h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 Ki T\u00f4 gi\u00e1o.\u00a0 Nh\u01b0ng CNTD \u0111\u00e3 l\u1ea7n l\u1ea7n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 ch\u00e2u \u00c2u, B\u1eafc M\u1ef9, ch\u00e2u M\u1ef9 Latin ni\u1ec1m n\u1edf ti\u1ebfp nh\u1eadn.\u00a0 Ch\u00ednh t\u1ea1i Hoa K\u1ef3, CNTD c\u0169ng b\u1ecb kh\u1ef1ng l\u1ea1i, kh\u00f4ng ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n n\u1ed5i trong m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi gian m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 quan \u0111i\u1ec3m v\u1ec1 gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c c\u1ee7a Dewey v\u1eabn c\u00f2n \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng. M\u00e3i \u0111\u1ebfn th\u1eadp k\u1ef7 1980, CNTD m\u1edbi h\u1ed3i sinh nh\u1edd c\u00e1c tri\u1ebft gia t\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng, trong \u0111\u00f3 n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 Richard Rorty v\u00e0 Hilary Putman. N\u1ebfu c\u00f3 d\u1ecbp, ng\u01b0\u1eddi vi\u1ebft n\u00e0y s\u1ebd xin tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y ti\u1ebfp v\u1ec1 t\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng (neo-pragmatism) v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u00e0i \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng c\u1ee7a n\u00f3.<\/p>\n

L\u00ea V\u0103n B\u1ec9nh<\/span><\/h2>\n

(Virginia, 11\/2017 & 11\/2022)<\/p>\n

_________________________________________________________________________<\/p>\n

L\u00ea V\u0103n B\u1ec9nh<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

    \n
  • T\u1ed1t nghi\u1ec7p H\u1ecdc Vi\u1ec7n Qu\u1ed1c Gia H\u00e0nh Ch\u00e1nh (\u0110\u1ed1c S\u1ef1 10 v\u00e0 Cao H\u1ecdc 2)\u00a0& University of Southern California (MA in Econ., 1974)<\/em><\/li>\n
  • Ch\u1ee7 B\u00fat Ho\u00e0i B\u00e3o Qu\u00ea H\u01b0\u01a1ng (1999 – 2000)\u00a0&\u00a0H\u00e0nh Ch\u00e1nh Mi\u1ec1n \u0110\u00f4ng (2002 – 2018)<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

    T\u00e0i Li\u1ec7u \u0110\u1ec1 Ngh\u1ecb \u0110\u1ecdc Th\u00eam \u0110\u1ec3 T\u00ecm Hi\u1ec3u S\u1ef1 \u00c1p D\u1ee5ng c\u1ee7a Ch\u1ee7 Ngh\u0129a Th\u1ef1c D\u1ee5ng<\/strong><\/p>\n

      \n
    1. How American Politics Works: Philosophy, Pragmatism, Personality and Profits (TG Richard J. Gelm, NXB Cambridge<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

      Scholars, 2010)<\/p>\n

        \n
      1. Pragmatism in Law & Society (H\u0110 Michael Brint & William Weaver, NXB Westview Press, 1991)<\/li>\n
      2. Pragmatism Applied: Williams James and the Challenges of Contemporay Life (H\u0110 Clifford S. Stagoll & Michael P. Levine, NXB Suny Press, 2019)<\/li>\n
      3. Pragmatism as Humanism: The Philosophy of Willaims James (TG Patrick Kiaran Dooley, NXB Little, Adams & Co, 1974)<\/li>\n
      4. Pragmatism versus Marxism: An Appraisal of John Dewey\u2018s Philosophy (TG George Novack, NXB Pathfinder Press, 1975)<\/li>\n
      5. Environmental Pragmatism (H\u0110 Andrew Light and Eric Katz, NXB Routledge, 1996)<\/li>\n
      6. Hope, Change, Pragmatism: Analyzing Obama\u2018s Grand Strategy (TG Jacob Shively, NXB Palgrave Macmillan, 2016)<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

         <\/p>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

        “Ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng” th\u01b0\u1eddng b\u1ecb d\u00f9ng sai. L\u00ea V\u0103n B\u1ec9nh gi\u1edbi thi\u1ec7u phong tr\u00e0o tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc thu\u1ea7n M\u1ef9 \u2014 t\u1eeb Peirce, James \u0111\u1ebfn Dewey \u2014 v\u00e0 l\u00fd gi\u1ea3i t\u1ea1i sao m\u1ed9t \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd khi n\u00f3 d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u00f3 k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3.<\/p>","protected":false},"author":4,"featured_media":2080,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"_gspb_post_css":"","footnotes":""},"categories":[85,103],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-2076","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-current-issue","category-deep-dives"],"blocksy_meta":[],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2076","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=2076"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2076\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2087,"href":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2076\/revisions\/2087"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/2080"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=2076"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=2076"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/1975mag.com\/ro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=2076"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}